Some readers will immediately associate a section devoted to psychological outcomes of P.E. with the effects of RE- (and sport) on pupils’ personality. They will think that this section is about the rather enduring dispositions, traits, or characteristics of the personality structure.
This expectation should not be surprising. Almost all European countries have experienced a period in which the position of P.E. in the school curriculum was justified by pointing out the assumed positive effects of this subject matter on personality. Individuals proposed that PE. and sport would have favorable influences on character development, specifically on dispositions such as perseverance, stamina, and courage. Sometimes the character forming element was even specified according to the sport. For instance, judo would be considered specifically valuable in the learning of self-control, boxing in increasing one's resilience, and jumping from a climbing ladder for promoting courage.
with respect to the effects of RE. on cognitive functioning, a variety of commonsense conceptions were used to legitimize the position-of P.E. in the school. For instance, P.E. would be valuable for supposedly enhancing pupils' three-dimensional thinking, for understanding the meaning of prepositions like 'in front of', 'opposite to', 'behind', and so forth.
However, in the majority of European countries, these claims are no longer used to justify physical education. These assumed positive effects of P .E. on personality have not been supported by research findings (Bakker, Whiting, & Van der Brug,1990; Eysenk, Nias, & Cox,19S2). The same holds . for the negative effects(e.g., aggression, selfishness, and jealousy) sometimes attributed to P.E. and sport. In short, P.E. automatically produces neither positive nor negative outcomes- It apparently does not produce effects on enduring personality dispositions or on basic cognitive functions.
This section will first focus on the fact that any effect of P .E. is the result of good planning and of reflective teaching and learning (dynamic interaction between teachers and pupils). The second focus will be the effects of P.E. on a number of psychological variables intrinsically related to P.E. These variables include attitude, enjoyment, motivation, beliefs about physical ability and competence, self-esteem, concentration and attention, and so forth.
In chapter 4, Yngvar Ommundsen from Norway and Michael Bar-Eli from Israel consider outcomes as motivation, achievement goals, affects, self-perceptions, prosocial behaviour, and fair play. These outcomes are intimately related to P.E. itself. They are important both as P .E. curriculum goals with their own merit and as prerequisites for the realization of other curriculum goals. For example, a long lasting interest ia sports and P.E. is likely to develop if pupils experience positive effects in their P.E. lessons. Ommundsen and Bar-Eli discus's theory and research findings pertinent to the role of physical education with respect to promoting these outcomes. They emphasize that the interaction between pupil characteristics and the way P.E. lessons are organized and presented are decisive in producing such outcomes. Creating a task-oriented climate (see also section I of this textbook) appears to be the most productive way to increase intrinsic motivation and positive attitudes and to develop controllable and functional beliefs about the causes of success in I'.E. In addition, Ommundsen and bar-Eli discuss the social-moral outcomes of PE. and the role of P.E. in relation to enhancing self-esteem.
The latter issue is discussed in more detail in chapter 5 of this section by Tara Lintunen, from Finland. She begins her chapter by explaining the relationships between global self-esteem and the sub aspects that are fundamental to P.E. Next, she discusses the development of self-perceptions during childhood and adolescence. The author explains several important aspects of self-perceptions such as their stability and sex differences in specific facets. Finally, Lintunen provides the reader with opportunities for promoting self-perceptions al school, particularly in P.E.
In chapter 6, Yannis Zervas from Greece and Nataila Stambulova from Russia discuss the effects of physical activity on cognitive functioning. The authors consider the acute effects of exercise on concentration and attention, problem solving, and reaction time. The general conclusion of research in this area is that exercise does not hamper cognitive functioning so long as the intensity of exercise is at low or moderate level. Some research findings have, on the contrary, indicated facilitative effects of light and moderate exercise. High levels of physical exertion as well as fatigue conditions may have negative effects. In addition, Zervas and Stambulova show that the nature of the effects of acute exercise bouts on mental performance (whether facilitating or debilitating) depends on the level of physical fitness of the exercisers. A high level of physical fitness is associated with superior levels of mental performance during and after exercise.
Zervas and Stambulova's chapter underscores once again the general message of this section. Positive or negative psychological outcomes at e not produced automatically but depend on the way PE. lessons are planned and organized
This expectation should not be surprising. Almost all European countries have experienced a period in which the position of P.E. in the school curriculum was justified by pointing out the assumed positive effects of this subject matter on personality. Individuals proposed that PE. and sport would have favorable influences on character development, specifically on dispositions such as perseverance, stamina, and courage. Sometimes the character forming element was even specified according to the sport. For instance, judo would be considered specifically valuable in the learning of self-control, boxing in increasing one's resilience, and jumping from a climbing ladder for promoting courage.
with respect to the effects of RE. on cognitive functioning, a variety of commonsense conceptions were used to legitimize the position-of P.E. in the school. For instance, P.E. would be valuable for supposedly enhancing pupils' three-dimensional thinking, for understanding the meaning of prepositions like 'in front of', 'opposite to', 'behind', and so forth.
However, in the majority of European countries, these claims are no longer used to justify physical education. These assumed positive effects of P .E. on personality have not been supported by research findings (Bakker, Whiting, & Van der Brug,1990; Eysenk, Nias, & Cox,19S2). The same holds . for the negative effects(e.g., aggression, selfishness, and jealousy) sometimes attributed to P.E. and sport. In short, P.E. automatically produces neither positive nor negative outcomes- It apparently does not produce effects on enduring personality dispositions or on basic cognitive functions.
This section will first focus on the fact that any effect of P .E. is the result of good planning and of reflective teaching and learning (dynamic interaction between teachers and pupils). The second focus will be the effects of P.E. on a number of psychological variables intrinsically related to P.E. These variables include attitude, enjoyment, motivation, beliefs about physical ability and competence, self-esteem, concentration and attention, and so forth.
In chapter 4, Yngvar Ommundsen from Norway and Michael Bar-Eli from Israel consider outcomes as motivation, achievement goals, affects, self-perceptions, prosocial behaviour, and fair play. These outcomes are intimately related to P.E. itself. They are important both as P .E. curriculum goals with their own merit and as prerequisites for the realization of other curriculum goals. For example, a long lasting interest ia sports and P.E. is likely to develop if pupils experience positive effects in their P.E. lessons. Ommundsen and Bar-Eli discus's theory and research findings pertinent to the role of physical education with respect to promoting these outcomes. They emphasize that the interaction between pupil characteristics and the way P.E. lessons are organized and presented are decisive in producing such outcomes. Creating a task-oriented climate (see also section I of this textbook) appears to be the most productive way to increase intrinsic motivation and positive attitudes and to develop controllable and functional beliefs about the causes of success in I'.E. In addition, Ommundsen and bar-Eli discuss the social-moral outcomes of PE. and the role of P.E. in relation to enhancing self-esteem.
The latter issue is discussed in more detail in chapter 5 of this section by Tara Lintunen, from Finland. She begins her chapter by explaining the relationships between global self-esteem and the sub aspects that are fundamental to P.E. Next, she discusses the development of self-perceptions during childhood and adolescence. The author explains several important aspects of self-perceptions such as their stability and sex differences in specific facets. Finally, Lintunen provides the reader with opportunities for promoting self-perceptions al school, particularly in P.E.
In chapter 6, Yannis Zervas from Greece and Nataila Stambulova from Russia discuss the effects of physical activity on cognitive functioning. The authors consider the acute effects of exercise on concentration and attention, problem solving, and reaction time. The general conclusion of research in this area is that exercise does not hamper cognitive functioning so long as the intensity of exercise is at low or moderate level. Some research findings have, on the contrary, indicated facilitative effects of light and moderate exercise. High levels of physical exertion as well as fatigue conditions may have negative effects. In addition, Zervas and Stambulova show that the nature of the effects of acute exercise bouts on mental performance (whether facilitating or debilitating) depends on the level of physical fitness of the exercisers. A high level of physical fitness is associated with superior levels of mental performance during and after exercise.
Zervas and Stambulova's chapter underscores once again the general message of this section. Positive or negative psychological outcomes at e not produced automatically but depend on the way PE. lessons are planned and organized
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