According to Nicholls (19b9), children pass through four distinct developmental stages on their way to attaining a mature or differentiated conception of ability. Without going into details about each of these stages, some main features should be mentioned. This developmental process takes place approximately from four to twelve years of age. At an early developmental stage, all children hold a predominantly task-oriented achievement goal in which they make use of an undifferentiated conception of ability. This implies that Young children view effort and ability as co varying. Put differently, for the Young ones, high ability means giving maximum effort. At an early developmental stage, therefore, Showing high effect is unconditionally viewed as something positive among children. In order to be predominantly ego oriented, however, pupils need to have reached a higher developmental stage in which they are cognitively capable of acquiring the differentiated view of ability. Having reached this developmental stage, pupils can now construe ability in a normative sense and in a capacity sense. To illustrate when students observe that they can handle a certain difficulty level more efficiently than others (that is, obtaining the same result with less effort), they understand that they possess more ability/stronger capacity than others. Having reached this developmental level, social comparison with fellow pupils takes on increased importance to them: Social comparison and reference norms now have the potential of-becoming a main criteria by which these students assess their own abilities¬
At this more advanced developmental stage, pupils distinguish the concepts of effort and ability. Being able means being better than others. They still believe that their capacity is enhanced by spending maximal effort. Nevertheless, these students now clearly view their ability as limited by their capacity and understand that high effort cannot compensate for lack of capacity.
To summarize, to adopt an ego-oriented achievement goal, pupils must have acquired a differentiated conception or mature understanding of ability. After having reached this stage, spending maximum effort may be more problematic. It might indicate low ability under conditions of low performance for pupils in a state of ego involvement. Researchers; therefore, have called this phenomenon effort-a double-edged sword.
Developing an ego-oriented achievement goal also requires that pupils can distinguish between other concepts: luck and chance versus skill and ability, and skill and ability versus task difficulty. First, when the concepts of chance and luck begin to separate from those of skill. and ability, children no longer think that performing tasks in which the outcome is determined by chance can be influenced by practice, effort, ability, or age. Distinguishing skill and ability from task difficulty requires students to comprehend that some tasks are more difficult than others based on how many pupils can successfully complete the task. For example, when children have became capable of differentiating the concepts of skill and ability from task difficulty failing a task at which many others succeed now implies low ability.
According to achievement goal theory, children are by. nature task oriented until they have developmentally progressed through these stages. Accordingly, in the early stages, all children are predominantly, adaptive in terms of achievement, behaviors, such as not giving up when facing failure or difficulties. Moreover, they seem to have a general sense of mastery and mainly expect to perf6rm positively in the future. Nicholls (1959) has investigated these developmental processes among children. He found that most children do not achieve a completely differentiated or mature conception of ability until approximately 12 years of age. The existence of these developmental stages has been successfully replicated in the physical domain.
Developmental phases such as these should not be regarded, however, as static Cognitive processes do not simply unfold in a more or less orderly way. Indeed, contexts factors such as the motivational climate may interact with developmentally based cognitions. This highlights the psychological role of the P.E. teacher in creating a positive teaching/ learning atmosphere.
As a consequence of the potentially negative contextual influence even at early class levels, P.E. lessons may, by inducing an ego/performance oriented climate, make pupils vulnerable to adopting tin ego-oriented state. Consequently, even pupils in the early grades may derive negative motivational and affective outcomes from P.E. Psychological outcomes and the role of the perceived motivational climate will be considered next.
At this more advanced developmental stage, pupils distinguish the concepts of effort and ability. Being able means being better than others. They still believe that their capacity is enhanced by spending maximal effort. Nevertheless, these students now clearly view their ability as limited by their capacity and understand that high effort cannot compensate for lack of capacity.
To summarize, to adopt an ego-oriented achievement goal, pupils must have acquired a differentiated conception or mature understanding of ability. After having reached this stage, spending maximum effort may be more problematic. It might indicate low ability under conditions of low performance for pupils in a state of ego involvement. Researchers; therefore, have called this phenomenon effort-a double-edged sword.
Developing an ego-oriented achievement goal also requires that pupils can distinguish between other concepts: luck and chance versus skill and ability, and skill and ability versus task difficulty. First, when the concepts of chance and luck begin to separate from those of skill. and ability, children no longer think that performing tasks in which the outcome is determined by chance can be influenced by practice, effort, ability, or age. Distinguishing skill and ability from task difficulty requires students to comprehend that some tasks are more difficult than others based on how many pupils can successfully complete the task. For example, when children have became capable of differentiating the concepts of skill and ability from task difficulty failing a task at which many others succeed now implies low ability.
According to achievement goal theory, children are by. nature task oriented until they have developmentally progressed through these stages. Accordingly, in the early stages, all children are predominantly, adaptive in terms of achievement, behaviors, such as not giving up when facing failure or difficulties. Moreover, they seem to have a general sense of mastery and mainly expect to perf6rm positively in the future. Nicholls (1959) has investigated these developmental processes among children. He found that most children do not achieve a completely differentiated or mature conception of ability until approximately 12 years of age. The existence of these developmental stages has been successfully replicated in the physical domain.
Developmental phases such as these should not be regarded, however, as static Cognitive processes do not simply unfold in a more or less orderly way. Indeed, contexts factors such as the motivational climate may interact with developmentally based cognitions. This highlights the psychological role of the P.E. teacher in creating a positive teaching/ learning atmosphere.
As a consequence of the potentially negative contextual influence even at early class levels, P.E. lessons may, by inducing an ego/performance oriented climate, make pupils vulnerable to adopting tin ego-oriented state. Consequently, even pupils in the early grades may derive negative motivational and affective outcomes from P.E. Psychological outcomes and the role of the perceived motivational climate will be considered next.
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