Recently, researchers such as Papaioannou (1995) and Goudas and Biddle (19946) have focused on psychological outcomes in P .E. such as pupils' intrinsic motivation a rid anxiety. A particular interest of Their studies has been to examine whether these outcomes are being influenced by the interaction of the pupils' perceptions of the motivational climate and their perceived competence. The evidence is quite clear. The perceived motivational climate makes a difference with respect to motivation. A couple o: examples may illustrate this. Pupils' perceived competence in PE. seem, to be of minimal importance with respect to intrinsic motivator, when the motivational climate is perceived as highly task oriented. By contrast, when pupils perceive the motivational climate as ego/performance oriented, intrinsic motivation seems to decrease for pupils with low perceived motor/physical ability.
As concerns motivation for children high in perceived ability, the perceived motivational climate matters as well. Confronted with a secara in which pupils high in perceived ability were supposed to play or exercise with low achievers, those with high perceived ability were less intrinsically motivated when simultaneously. premiering the motivational climate as low in task orientation (Papaioannou, 1995). Thus, a task ¬oriented motivational climate may be considered useful not only for those who doubt their abilities. Pupils with a high sense of ability may benefit as well. This may be because a task-oriented motivational climate invites these pupils to focus on the learning activity, doing their best, and seeing the challenge of co-operation rather than on being demotivated by easily beating someone with less ability than themselves (see also the chapter be Lamont and Winnykamen).
Negative affective outcomes in terns of anxiety also seem influenced by the perceived gravitational climate (Papaioannou,1995). In particular, pupils who doubt their abilities in P.E. seem to worry most when they face high achievers in a P.E. climate perceived as low in task orientation.
The message so far seems elite clear. In order to promote positive motivational outcomes and reduce negative affective ones for pupils with high or low perceived ability in physical education, P.E. teachers should make sure that all pupils perceive the motivational climate as task oriented. As a in sequence, teachers may more easily come to strengthen their pupils' positive attitudes and their perceived usefulness towards physical education: A decrease of negative affective states, such as anxiety and insecurity, may be the psychological outcomes as well.
As stated in the introduction, psychological out memos PE. Also emprise self-perceptions of competence and self-esteem. However, in this part of the chapter, only a couple of studies will be explored that have explicitly taken advantage of an achievement goal approach when studying this outcome category. psychological outcomes pertaining to self-perceptions including perceived competence and self-esteem are more fully elaborated upon in the next main pa. t of this chapter (The Enhancement of Self-Esteem as an Outcome). Thus, the reader should consult that section for a more detailed inspection of outcomes elated to self-esteem.
Cury et al. (1996) conducted a recent achievement goal approach study that dealt with competence-specific psychological outcomes of P.E on young girls' participation in P.E: In this study, results showed that in terms of outcomes pertaining to perceived competence, the girls who benefited most from P.E. classes also perceived the motivational climate as task oriented. Moreover, the positive effect of the task-oriented motivational climate upon their sense of competence also positively influenced these girls' intrinsic motivational outcomes: In other words, why are intrinsic motivational outcomes in PE. influenced by a task-oriented motivational climate? The answer seers to be that pupils who perceive the motivational climate as task oriented more easily get opportunities to develop their abilities.
Marsh and Pcartk1988) also focused upon pupils' outcomes in P.E. in terms of perceived ability. They found that perceptions of physical ability were not enhanced for all pupils. Differences in motivational features of the two intervention programmers studied played a role. Pupils in the co¬operative fitness programmed (task-oriented climate) enhanced their perceived physical ability. In contrast, participation in the competitively oriented fitness programmed (ego/performance-oriented climate) lowered pupils' perceived physical abilities.
Using a similar experimental design, Lloyd and Fox (1992) examined the effect of different motivational climates in physical education on children's achievement goals and motivation: Female subjects were assigned to two modes of instruction (self- or externally referenced) in a six-week aerobic fitness program: :e. The selection procedure was based on the suburbs' initial score on a measure of dispositional ego-oriented achievement goal. The results showed that the group that focused on a mode of instruction reflecting a task-oriented climate produced higher levels of enjoyment and motivation to continue with aerobic activities. Furthermore, subjects initially high on an ego-oriented achievement goal reported lower scores on an ego achievement goal after participating in a mode of instruction set up to create a task-oriented climate. By contrast, pupils who initially had a low score on an ego achievement goal reported an increase in ego-oriented achievement goals after participating in a mode of instruction reflecting an ego/performance-oriented motivational climate.
Can pupils' motivational and affective outcomes be enhanced when they are taught soccer skills? A field experiment conducted by Treasure and Roberts (1995) focused on this. Pupils learned soccer skills under a task¬ oriented and an ego/performance-oriented climate, respectively. More positive psychological outcomes--stronger preference for challenging learning activities; more enjoyment, and less boredom-were reported by low perceived ability children in a task-oriented climate in comparison with low perceived ability children in the performance/ego-oriented climate.
Intrinsic motivational outcomes of physical education have also been examined. These studies looked at the i elation of different teaching methods on the impact of the motivational climate. These teaching methods included giving unequal: weight to allocating authority to the pupils and stimulating their sense of self-determination. Goudas, Biddle, and Underwood (reported in Goudas & Biddle, 1994a) conducted a field experiment in a natural physical education setting for this purpose. Stronger intrinsic motivation shown by higher enjoyment was found among pupils who were allowed to take part in determining the level of pace and difficult, of their own work.
For you as a P.E. teacher, these experimentally based findings are - ' important. Previous non-experiment research has suggested that the motivational climate may have a shaping effect uploads position. a achievement goals (i.e., Cury et a1.,1996). These experimental findings support this view. By definition, achievement goals are seen as dispositional immature and may be amenable to change. This implies that dispositions are sensitive to imitational cues that may suppress particular ways of thinking and acting characteristic of the particular achievement goal, thus leading pupils into a different state of involvement. Consequently, as a physical education teacher, you are able to design a curriculum that may reduce pupils' disposition to join RE. lessons holding an ego-oriented achievement goal.
The evidence presented is quite clear and encouraging from other pedagogical points of view as well. It suggests that a task-oriented . motivational climate, which also includes elements personal autonomy and sel-determinable in, is superior in developing intrinsic motivation, reducing fear of failure, and enhancing persistence. This collisions were strobe valid for all pupils; irrespective of how they perceive their own abilities.
Keep in mind that even though a (ask-oriented motivational climate is the main predictor of positive motivational outcomes, another type of climate can positively affect intricacy motivation, too. The combination of a task-oriented and ego/performance-oriented climate also seems to enhance intrinsic motivation intern so enjoyment, effort tempo acne, and perceived competence (Goudas & Biddle,1994b). Thus, intrinsic motivation may also be increased by creating situations in which pupils feel that superior ability is appreciated as well.
As a last point one might ask, 'What about the relative importance of d dispositional achievement goals and perception of the motivational climate with respect to affective and motivational outcomes?' Researchers have argued that for less-popular P.E. class activities (for example, gymnastics), the perception of the motivational climate is particularly important for intrinsic interest and intentions to perform the activities. By contrast, in learning activities with usually higher motivation (for example, ball games), pupils' dispositional achievement goals may be more influential (Biddle, Cury, Goudas, Sarrazin, Famose, & Durand, 1995).
To sum up, research strongly advises that to enhance motivational and affective outcomes in P.E., pedagogical efforts should enhance a task¬ oriented motivational climate. This climate increases intrinsic motivation, positive attitudes, and perceived usefulness of physical education and also reduces pupils' worries in the gym. In addition, a task-oriented climate would also develop more controllable and functional beliefs about the causes of success. An ego/performance-oriented motivational climate, by contrast, may counteract the development of pupils' sense of mastery and intrinsic interest. It could lead to negative affective outcomes, particularly if cues reinforcing task involvement are not made salient.
As concerns motivation for children high in perceived ability, the perceived motivational climate matters as well. Confronted with a secara in which pupils high in perceived ability were supposed to play or exercise with low achievers, those with high perceived ability were less intrinsically motivated when simultaneously. premiering the motivational climate as low in task orientation (Papaioannou, 1995). Thus, a task ¬oriented motivational climate may be considered useful not only for those who doubt their abilities. Pupils with a high sense of ability may benefit as well. This may be because a task-oriented motivational climate invites these pupils to focus on the learning activity, doing their best, and seeing the challenge of co-operation rather than on being demotivated by easily beating someone with less ability than themselves (see also the chapter be Lamont and Winnykamen).
Negative affective outcomes in terns of anxiety also seem influenced by the perceived gravitational climate (Papaioannou,1995). In particular, pupils who doubt their abilities in P.E. seem to worry most when they face high achievers in a P.E. climate perceived as low in task orientation.
The message so far seems elite clear. In order to promote positive motivational outcomes and reduce negative affective ones for pupils with high or low perceived ability in physical education, P.E. teachers should make sure that all pupils perceive the motivational climate as task oriented. As a in sequence, teachers may more easily come to strengthen their pupils' positive attitudes and their perceived usefulness towards physical education: A decrease of negative affective states, such as anxiety and insecurity, may be the psychological outcomes as well.
As stated in the introduction, psychological out memos PE. Also emprise self-perceptions of competence and self-esteem. However, in this part of the chapter, only a couple of studies will be explored that have explicitly taken advantage of an achievement goal approach when studying this outcome category. psychological outcomes pertaining to self-perceptions including perceived competence and self-esteem are more fully elaborated upon in the next main pa. t of this chapter (The Enhancement of Self-Esteem as an Outcome). Thus, the reader should consult that section for a more detailed inspection of outcomes elated to self-esteem.
Cury et al. (1996) conducted a recent achievement goal approach study that dealt with competence-specific psychological outcomes of P.E on young girls' participation in P.E: In this study, results showed that in terms of outcomes pertaining to perceived competence, the girls who benefited most from P.E. classes also perceived the motivational climate as task oriented. Moreover, the positive effect of the task-oriented motivational climate upon their sense of competence also positively influenced these girls' intrinsic motivational outcomes: In other words, why are intrinsic motivational outcomes in PE. influenced by a task-oriented motivational climate? The answer seers to be that pupils who perceive the motivational climate as task oriented more easily get opportunities to develop their abilities.
Marsh and Pcartk1988) also focused upon pupils' outcomes in P.E. in terms of perceived ability. They found that perceptions of physical ability were not enhanced for all pupils. Differences in motivational features of the two intervention programmers studied played a role. Pupils in the co¬operative fitness programmed (task-oriented climate) enhanced their perceived physical ability. In contrast, participation in the competitively oriented fitness programmed (ego/performance-oriented climate) lowered pupils' perceived physical abilities.
Using a similar experimental design, Lloyd and Fox (1992) examined the effect of different motivational climates in physical education on children's achievement goals and motivation: Female subjects were assigned to two modes of instruction (self- or externally referenced) in a six-week aerobic fitness program: :e. The selection procedure was based on the suburbs' initial score on a measure of dispositional ego-oriented achievement goal. The results showed that the group that focused on a mode of instruction reflecting a task-oriented climate produced higher levels of enjoyment and motivation to continue with aerobic activities. Furthermore, subjects initially high on an ego-oriented achievement goal reported lower scores on an ego achievement goal after participating in a mode of instruction set up to create a task-oriented climate. By contrast, pupils who initially had a low score on an ego achievement goal reported an increase in ego-oriented achievement goals after participating in a mode of instruction reflecting an ego/performance-oriented motivational climate.
Can pupils' motivational and affective outcomes be enhanced when they are taught soccer skills? A field experiment conducted by Treasure and Roberts (1995) focused on this. Pupils learned soccer skills under a task¬ oriented and an ego/performance-oriented climate, respectively. More positive psychological outcomes--stronger preference for challenging learning activities; more enjoyment, and less boredom-were reported by low perceived ability children in a task-oriented climate in comparison with low perceived ability children in the performance/ego-oriented climate.
Intrinsic motivational outcomes of physical education have also been examined. These studies looked at the i elation of different teaching methods on the impact of the motivational climate. These teaching methods included giving unequal: weight to allocating authority to the pupils and stimulating their sense of self-determination. Goudas, Biddle, and Underwood (reported in Goudas & Biddle, 1994a) conducted a field experiment in a natural physical education setting for this purpose. Stronger intrinsic motivation shown by higher enjoyment was found among pupils who were allowed to take part in determining the level of pace and difficult, of their own work.
For you as a P.E. teacher, these experimentally based findings are - ' important. Previous non-experiment research has suggested that the motivational climate may have a shaping effect uploads position. a achievement goals (i.e., Cury et a1.,1996). These experimental findings support this view. By definition, achievement goals are seen as dispositional immature and may be amenable to change. This implies that dispositions are sensitive to imitational cues that may suppress particular ways of thinking and acting characteristic of the particular achievement goal, thus leading pupils into a different state of involvement. Consequently, as a physical education teacher, you are able to design a curriculum that may reduce pupils' disposition to join RE. lessons holding an ego-oriented achievement goal.
The evidence presented is quite clear and encouraging from other pedagogical points of view as well. It suggests that a task-oriented . motivational climate, which also includes elements personal autonomy and sel-determinable in, is superior in developing intrinsic motivation, reducing fear of failure, and enhancing persistence. This collisions were strobe valid for all pupils; irrespective of how they perceive their own abilities.
Keep in mind that even though a (ask-oriented motivational climate is the main predictor of positive motivational outcomes, another type of climate can positively affect intricacy motivation, too. The combination of a task-oriented and ego/performance-oriented climate also seems to enhance intrinsic motivation intern so enjoyment, effort tempo acne, and perceived competence (Goudas & Biddle,1994b). Thus, intrinsic motivation may also be increased by creating situations in which pupils feel that superior ability is appreciated as well.
As a last point one might ask, 'What about the relative importance of d dispositional achievement goals and perception of the motivational climate with respect to affective and motivational outcomes?' Researchers have argued that for less-popular P.E. class activities (for example, gymnastics), the perception of the motivational climate is particularly important for intrinsic interest and intentions to perform the activities. By contrast, in learning activities with usually higher motivation (for example, ball games), pupils' dispositional achievement goals may be more influential (Biddle, Cury, Goudas, Sarrazin, Famose, & Durand, 1995).
To sum up, research strongly advises that to enhance motivational and affective outcomes in P.E., pedagogical efforts should enhance a task¬ oriented motivational climate. This climate increases intrinsic motivation, positive attitudes, and perceived usefulness of physical education and also reduces pupils' worries in the gym. In addition, a task-oriented climate would also develop more controllable and functional beliefs about the causes of success. An ego/performance-oriented motivational climate, by contrast, may counteract the development of pupils' sense of mastery and intrinsic interest. It could lead to negative affective outcomes, particularly if cues reinforcing task involvement are not made salient.
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