Studies have examined pupils' participation P.E relative to outmen’s. pertaining to their thoughts and actions during lessons. For example, researchers found that pupils differed significantly with respect to level of interest, attention, positive attitudes and use of adaptive learning strategies. The pupils' achievement goals influenced these outcomes. That is, pupils with a high task achievement goal reported more positive and adaptive thoughts and actions, such as higher levels of attention, less anxiety, and more stilling ness to persist in practice, as opposed to those holding an ego achievement goal. Pupils with a high task-oriented achievement goal also chose more challenging tasks, and they reported more positive attitudes towards class (Solmon & Bootie, 1993).
Other studies focused on outcomes pertaining to children's exercise induced feeling states following a competitively oriented running event in . the physical education setting. For example, Gatchopoulos, Biddle, and Fox (1996) found that the experiences of positive affective states such as revitalization and tranquility after a competitive run were more likely among highly task-oriented pupils. Such positive affective states were also experienced by those with a high o achievement goal but only in combination with a high perception of sport competence. Moreover, feelings of physical exhaustion where experienced only among those with a low task¬ oriented goal.
Thus, positive aff2ctive and cognitive outcomes in P.E. are apparently more easily eased by pupils with a motivational achievement goal that includes self-referenced criteria for success and competence. Positive motivational and affective outcomes for pupils in P.E. are important, because they may substantially affect the students learning and achievement in t this setting.
AS already mentioned. pupils who hold an ego-oriented achievement goal and also doubt their ability in P.E. should be particularly at risk for developing dysfunctional achievement behavior and experiencing negative motivational and affective outcomes. The chapter will now have a look at some empirical evidence dealing with the issue of whether an ego-oriented goal is maladaptive independent of pupils' perceptions of ability.
In a study conducted within the context of P.E. in a secondary comprehensive school, Goudas, Biddle, and For. (1994a) divided pupils’ into groups based on different combinations of scores on task-and ego-oriented achievement goals. The focus of the study was on the effects of physical fitness testing upon intrinsic motivational outcomes. They found the following. Pupils clearly varied in their scores on intrinsic motivation Variations in intrinsic motivation were related to specific combinations o scores on their dispositional achievement goals, their perceived success and their performance on the fitness test. Pupils with a high test performance and those who 4 ,successful reported laugher intrinsic motivation than their counterparts: lover importantly, pupils in the high task/low ego achievement goal group who performed below average on the test had significantly higher scores on intrinsic motivation (enjoyment/interest/ effort) in comparison with the high ego/low task group. This implies that high task/low ego pupils are able to maintain high intrinsic motivation even when their fitness test performances are rather weak
Taken together, the so results demonstrate that motivational and affective outcomes of P.E. lessons that include fitness testing depend upon pupils' dispositional motivational goal orientations. More specifically, teachers should be aware that pupils with a high task/low ego achievement goal may benefit tans from fitness testing in terms of intrinsic motivation. Accordingly, under fitness , test conditions, groups of pupils who are less able should benefit the most with respect to keeping a high degree of intrinsic motivation if P.E. teachers encourage them to utilize self-referenced criteria for their performances on such tests.
Research has also examined cognitive determinants of intrinsic motivational outcomes in soccer, netball, and gymnastics. For example, Goudas, Biddle, and Fox (1994b) conducted a study among pupils aged 12 to 14 years for this purpose. The determinants included achievement goals, perceived competence, and perceived, autonomy, whereas intrinsic motivational outcomes were measured in terms of enjoyment and invested effort. Intrinsic motivation significantly differed among pupils, and some pupils had very low intrinsic motivation.
What characterized these pupils' cognitions? First, their achievement goals were highly ego orients, and they perceived their competence as being low. Clearly, this stud), also attests the view that to enhance motivation for pupils with a sense of low confidence in P .E., work aimed at creating a task ¬oriented motivational climate should particularly important.
Second, this study also revealed that high intrinsic interest in PE. activities was related to perceived autonomy sherbet a sense of performing P.E. activities without any external rewards or contingencies is do incant. This supports Deci and Ryan's (1985) cognitive evaluation theory. Their theory maintains that the degree of autonomy people feel in their actions is an important determinant of intrinsic motivation.
The important role of high perceived autonomy was also revealed by additional results. These showed that the effect of perceived competence on intrinsic motivation was moderated by the level of perceived self ¬determination. In other words, to maintain intrinsic motivation, the importance of a sense of self-determination seems to be no less important `than high perceived competence.
To summarize, the findings explored in this part of the chapter are : important from a pedagogical point of view. The results point to several necessary factors that teachers have to take into account to develop both adaptive learning strategies and their students' intrinsic interest and positive affect towards physical education activities. Specifically, trying to promote a task-oriented motivational dim ate seems important. When trying to do so, however, installing criteria for success among the pupils that are self referenced may not be enough. Teachers should also make sure that pupils can choose from several activities in which to participate and that students feel they can take part without adverting td external regulations.
So far, the chapter has suggested several recommendations dealing with the promotion of positive motivational and affective outcomes of P.E. In particular, the authors have emphasized the positive motivational and affective implications of holding a task-oriented achievement goal: In addition, they have recommended that teachers should work towards a task-oriented motivational climate in their classes. Can you trust these recommendations? In order to answer this more adequately, the chapter will next explore us ether motivational and affective outcomes are in fact influenced be perceptions of the motivational climate and whether achievement goals are amenable to change.
Other studies focused on outcomes pertaining to children's exercise induced feeling states following a competitively oriented running event in . the physical education setting. For example, Gatchopoulos, Biddle, and Fox (1996) found that the experiences of positive affective states such as revitalization and tranquility after a competitive run were more likely among highly task-oriented pupils. Such positive affective states were also experienced by those with a high o achievement goal but only in combination with a high perception of sport competence. Moreover, feelings of physical exhaustion where experienced only among those with a low task¬ oriented goal.
Thus, positive aff2ctive and cognitive outcomes in P.E. are apparently more easily eased by pupils with a motivational achievement goal that includes self-referenced criteria for success and competence. Positive motivational and affective outcomes for pupils in P.E. are important, because they may substantially affect the students learning and achievement in t this setting.
AS already mentioned. pupils who hold an ego-oriented achievement goal and also doubt their ability in P.E. should be particularly at risk for developing dysfunctional achievement behavior and experiencing negative motivational and affective outcomes. The chapter will now have a look at some empirical evidence dealing with the issue of whether an ego-oriented goal is maladaptive independent of pupils' perceptions of ability.
In a study conducted within the context of P.E. in a secondary comprehensive school, Goudas, Biddle, and For. (1994a) divided pupils’ into groups based on different combinations of scores on task-and ego-oriented achievement goals. The focus of the study was on the effects of physical fitness testing upon intrinsic motivational outcomes. They found the following. Pupils clearly varied in their scores on intrinsic motivation Variations in intrinsic motivation were related to specific combinations o scores on their dispositional achievement goals, their perceived success and their performance on the fitness test. Pupils with a high test performance and those who 4 ,successful reported laugher intrinsic motivation than their counterparts: lover importantly, pupils in the high task/low ego achievement goal group who performed below average on the test had significantly higher scores on intrinsic motivation (enjoyment/interest/ effort) in comparison with the high ego/low task group. This implies that high task/low ego pupils are able to maintain high intrinsic motivation even when their fitness test performances are rather weak
Taken together, the so results demonstrate that motivational and affective outcomes of P.E. lessons that include fitness testing depend upon pupils' dispositional motivational goal orientations. More specifically, teachers should be aware that pupils with a high task/low ego achievement goal may benefit tans from fitness testing in terms of intrinsic motivation. Accordingly, under fitness , test conditions, groups of pupils who are less able should benefit the most with respect to keeping a high degree of intrinsic motivation if P.E. teachers encourage them to utilize self-referenced criteria for their performances on such tests.
Research has also examined cognitive determinants of intrinsic motivational outcomes in soccer, netball, and gymnastics. For example, Goudas, Biddle, and Fox (1994b) conducted a study among pupils aged 12 to 14 years for this purpose. The determinants included achievement goals, perceived competence, and perceived, autonomy, whereas intrinsic motivational outcomes were measured in terms of enjoyment and invested effort. Intrinsic motivation significantly differed among pupils, and some pupils had very low intrinsic motivation.
What characterized these pupils' cognitions? First, their achievement goals were highly ego orients, and they perceived their competence as being low. Clearly, this stud), also attests the view that to enhance motivation for pupils with a sense of low confidence in P .E., work aimed at creating a task ¬oriented motivational climate should particularly important.
Second, this study also revealed that high intrinsic interest in PE. activities was related to perceived autonomy sherbet a sense of performing P.E. activities without any external rewards or contingencies is do incant. This supports Deci and Ryan's (1985) cognitive evaluation theory. Their theory maintains that the degree of autonomy people feel in their actions is an important determinant of intrinsic motivation.
The important role of high perceived autonomy was also revealed by additional results. These showed that the effect of perceived competence on intrinsic motivation was moderated by the level of perceived self ¬determination. In other words, to maintain intrinsic motivation, the importance of a sense of self-determination seems to be no less important `than high perceived competence.
To summarize, the findings explored in this part of the chapter are : important from a pedagogical point of view. The results point to several necessary factors that teachers have to take into account to develop both adaptive learning strategies and their students' intrinsic interest and positive affect towards physical education activities. Specifically, trying to promote a task-oriented motivational dim ate seems important. When trying to do so, however, installing criteria for success among the pupils that are self referenced may not be enough. Teachers should also make sure that pupils can choose from several activities in which to participate and that students feel they can take part without adverting td external regulations.
So far, the chapter has suggested several recommendations dealing with the promotion of positive motivational and affective outcomes of P.E. In particular, the authors have emphasized the positive motivational and affective implications of holding a task-oriented achievement goal: In addition, they have recommended that teachers should work towards a task-oriented motivational climate in their classes. Can you trust these recommendations? In order to answer this more adequately, the chapter will next explore us ether motivational and affective outcomes are in fact influenced be perceptions of the motivational climate and whether achievement goals are amenable to change.
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