Reducing Inequalities in Pupils' Psychological Outcomes

Several writers in the physical education domain have been concerned with the so, called self-falling prophecies during the teaching-learning porkers in P.E. Researchers have hypothesized that differences in initial teacher expectations towards subgroups of pupils, dependent upon such cues as gender, body type, or initial achievement levels, result if, differential teacher treatment of these subgroups. For example, communication patterns will vary. Instructors will give fewer opportunities-and less feedback, praise, and encouragement to low expectancy pupils as compared with high expectancy pupils. This, in turn, easily leads to differential opportunities for learning and development among pupils in P .E. When this happens, the negative type becomes closed and the self-fulfilling prophecy becomes realized-the P.E. teachers' initial differential expectations become fulfilled. P.E. teachers should make every effort to prevent suci; plebiscites. If not, teachers may unwittingly give rise to unequal psychological outcomes for subgroups of pupils in terms of motivation, affect and skill acquisition, attributions, future expectations for success, as well as inequalities regarding the development of pupils' self-perceptions.
How may teachers prevent the development of self-fulfilling prophecies and thus create more equal possibilities for all pupils to experience positive psychological outcomes from P.E. Empirical research shims that creating a mastery-oriented climate in P.E. would be helpful. For example, Martinek and Karper (19S4) and, more recently, Papaioannou (1995) examined differences in teacher-pupil interactions and treatment of high and low ability pupils in P.E. They found that teachers' behavior in favor of high achievers occurred more often in a motivational climate characterized as ego/performance oriented. In contrast, in a task-oriented motivational climate, teachers' behavior indicating positive expectations for low achievers was observed more frequently.
Why should a task-oriented motivational climate be of particular importance for reducing inequalities in psychological outcomes for sloops pupils' Papaioanrou (1995)proposed interesting explanation by arguing that a teacher's different behaviors Howard’s high and low achievers focuses pupils' attention on issues of ability rather than on how to master the task. Thus, a positive relationship should exist between an ego/ performance oriented motivational climate and teachers' differential treatment toward high and low achievers. When an ego/performance oriented climate prevails, ability is valued most in the class. In this case, only pupils with high normatif ability are rewarded. In contrast, when the P.E. motivational climate is predominantly task oriented, issues of normatif e ability irrelevant. Then, differential treatment of low and high achievers becomes irrelevant as well.
To sum up, research seems to support the view that the PE. context, though differential teacher expectations, may create unequal opportunities concerning psychological outcomes of pupil subgroups. Encouraging evidence shows, however, that be promoting a task-oriented motivational climate, such unintended inequalities and a negative P.E. hidden curriculum can be prevented. A task-oriented motivational class climate may more easily benefit all pupils' intrinsic motivation and involvement. This may be attributed to the fact that when a task-oriented climate prevails, equality in communication and interest for all pupils, independent of their achievement characteristics, would possibly dominate.

Empirical Evidence About the Perceived Motivational Climate

Recently, researchers such as Papaioannou (1995) and Goudas and Biddle (19946) have focused on psychological outcomes in P .E. such as pupils' intrinsic motivation a rid anxiety. A particular interest of Their studies has been to examine whether these outcomes are being influenced by the interaction of the pupils' perceptions of the motivational climate and their perceived competence. The evidence is quite clear. The perceived motivational climate makes a difference with respect to motivation. A couple o: examples may illustrate this. Pupils' perceived competence in PE. seem, to be of minimal importance with respect to intrinsic motivator, when the motivational climate is perceived as highly task oriented. By contrast, when pupils perceive the motivational climate as ego/performance oriented, intrinsic motivation seems to decrease for pupils with low perceived motor/physical ability.
As concerns motivation for children high in perceived ability, the perceived motivational climate matters as well. Confronted with a secara in which pupils high in perceived ability were supposed to play or exercise with low achievers, those with high perceived ability were less intrinsically motivated when simultaneously. premiering the motivational climate as low in task orientation (Papaioannou, 1995). Thus, a task ¬oriented motivational climate may be considered useful not only for those who doubt their abilities. Pupils with a high sense of ability may benefit as well. This may be because a task-oriented motivational climate invites these pupils to focus on the learning activity, doing their best, and seeing the challenge of co-operation rather than on being demotivated by easily beating someone with less ability than themselves (see also the chapter be Lamont and Winnykamen).
Negative affective outcomes in terns of anxiety also seem influenced by the perceived gravitational climate (Papaioannou,1995). In particular, pupils who doubt their abilities in P.E. seem to worry most when they face high achievers in a P.E. climate perceived as low in task orientation.
The message so far seems elite clear. In order to promote positive motivational outcomes and reduce negative affective ones for pupils with high or low perceived ability in physical education, P.E. teachers should make sure that all pupils perceive the motivational climate as task oriented. As a in sequence, teachers may more easily come to strengthen their pupils' positive attitudes and their perceived usefulness towards physical education: A decrease of negative affective states, such as anxiety and insecurity, may be the psychological outcomes as well.
As stated in the introduction, psychological out memos PE. Also emprise self-perceptions of competence and self-esteem. However, in this part of the chapter, only a couple of studies will be explored that have explicitly taken advantage of an achievement goal approach when studying this outcome category. psychological outcomes pertaining to self-perceptions including perceived competence and self-esteem are more fully elaborated upon in the next main pa. t of this chapter (The Enhancement of Self-Esteem as an Outcome). Thus, the reader should consult that section for a more detailed inspection of outcomes elated to self-esteem.
Cury et al. (1996) conducted a recent achievement goal approach study that dealt with competence-specific psychological outcomes of P.E on young girls' participation in P.E: In this study, results showed that in terms of outcomes pertaining to perceived competence, the girls who benefited most from P.E. classes also perceived the motivational climate as task oriented. Moreover, the positive effect of the task-oriented motivational climate upon their sense of competence also positively influenced these girls' intrinsic motivational outcomes: In other words, why are intrinsic motivational outcomes in PE. influenced by a task-oriented motivational climate? The answer seers to be that pupils who perceive the motivational climate as task oriented more easily get opportunities to develop their abilities.
Marsh and Pcartk1988) also focused upon pupils' outcomes in P.E. in terms of perceived ability. They found that perceptions of physical ability were not enhanced for all pupils. Differences in motivational features of the two intervention programmers studied played a role. Pupils in the co¬operative fitness programmed (task-oriented climate) enhanced their perceived physical ability. In contrast, participation in the competitively oriented fitness programmed (ego/performance-oriented climate) lowered pupils' perceived physical abilities.
Using a similar experimental design, Lloyd and Fox (1992) examined the effect of different motivational climates in physical education on children's achievement goals and motivation: Female subjects were assigned to two modes of instruction (self- or externally referenced) in a six-week aerobic fitness program: :e. The selection procedure was based on the suburbs' initial score on a measure of dispositional ego-oriented achievement goal. The results showed that the group that focused on a mode of instruction reflecting a task-oriented climate produced higher levels of enjoyment and motivation to continue with aerobic activities. Furthermore, subjects initially high on an ego-oriented achievement goal reported lower scores on an ego achievement goal after participating in a mode of instruction set up to create a task-oriented climate. By contrast, pupils who initially had a low score on an ego achievement goal reported an increase in ego-oriented achievement goals after participating in a mode of instruction reflecting an ego/performance-oriented motivational climate.
Can pupils' motivational and affective outcomes be enhanced when they are taught soccer skills? A field experiment conducted by Treasure and Roberts (1995) focused on this. Pupils learned soccer skills under a task¬ oriented and an ego/performance-oriented climate, respectively. More positive psychological outcomes--stronger preference for challenging learning activities; more enjoyment, and less boredom-were reported by low perceived ability children in a task-oriented climate in comparison with low perceived ability children in the performance/ego-oriented climate.
Intrinsic motivational outcomes of physical education have also been examined. These studies looked at the i elation of different teaching methods on the impact of the motivational climate. These teaching methods included giving unequal: weight to allocating authority to the pupils and stimulating their sense of self-determination. Goudas, Biddle, and Underwood (reported in Goudas & Biddle, 1994a) conducted a field experiment in a natural physical education setting for this purpose. Stronger intrinsic motivation shown by higher enjoyment was found among pupils who were allowed to take part in determining the level of pace and difficult, of their own work.
For you as a P.E. teacher, these experimentally based findings are - ' important. Previous non-experiment research has suggested that the motivational climate may have a shaping effect uploads position. a achievement goals (i.e., Cury et a1.,1996). These experimental findings support this view. By definition, achievement goals are seen as dispositional immature and may be amenable to change. This implies that dispositions are sensitive to imitational cues that may suppress particular ways of thinking and acting characteristic of the particular achievement goal, thus leading pupils into a different state of involvement. Consequently, as a physical education teacher, you are able to design a curriculum that may reduce pupils' disposition to join RE. lessons holding an ego-oriented achievement goal.
The evidence presented is quite clear and encouraging from other pedagogical points of view as well. It suggests that a task-oriented . motivational climate, which also includes elements personal autonomy and sel-determinable in, is superior in developing intrinsic motivation, reducing fear of failure, and enhancing persistence. This collisions were strobe valid for all pupils; irrespective of how they perceive their own abilities.
Keep in mind that even though a (ask-oriented motivational climate is the main predictor of positive motivational outcomes, another type of climate can positively affect intricacy motivation, too. The combination of a task-oriented and ego/performance-oriented climate also seems to enhance intrinsic motivation intern so enjoyment, effort tempo acne, and perceived competence (Goudas & Biddle,1994b). Thus, intrinsic motivation may also be increased by creating situations in which pupils feel that superior ability is appreciated as well.
As a last point one might ask, 'What about the relative importance of d dispositional achievement goals and perception of the motivational climate with respect to affective and motivational outcomes?' Researchers have argued that for less-popular P.E. class activities (for example, gymnastics), the perception of the motivational climate is particularly important for intrinsic interest and intentions to perform the activities. By contrast, in learning activities with usually higher motivation (for example, ball games), pupils' dispositional achievement goals may be more influential (Biddle, Cury, Goudas, Sarrazin, Famose, & Durand, 1995).
To sum up, research strongly advises that to enhance motivational and affective outcomes in P.E., pedagogical efforts should enhance a task¬ oriented motivational climate. This climate increases intrinsic motivation, positive attitudes, and perceived usefulness of physical education and also reduces pupils' worries in the gym. In addition, a task-oriented climate would also develop more controllable and functional beliefs about the causes of success. An ego/performance-oriented motivational climate, by contrast, may counteract the development of pupils' sense of mastery and intrinsic interest. It could lead to negative affective outcomes, particularly if cues reinforcing task involvement are not made salient.

Empirical Evidence About Achievement Goals

Studies have examined pupils' participation P.E relative to outmen’s. pertaining to their thoughts and actions during lessons. For example, researchers found that pupils differed significantly with respect to level of interest, attention, positive attitudes and use of adaptive learning strategies. The pupils' achievement goals influenced these outcomes. That is, pupils with a high task achievement goal reported more positive and adaptive thoughts and actions, such as higher levels of attention, less anxiety, and more stilling ness to persist in practice, as opposed to those holding an ego achievement goal. Pupils with a high task-oriented achievement goal also chose more challenging tasks, and they reported more positive attitudes towards class (Solmon & Bootie, 1993).
Other studies focused on outcomes pertaining to children's exercise induced feeling states following a competitively oriented running event in . the physical education setting. For example, Gatchopoulos, Biddle, and Fox (1996) found that the experiences of positive affective states such as revitalization and tranquility after a competitive run were more likely among highly task-oriented pupils. Such positive affective states were also experienced by those with a high o achievement goal but only in combination with a high perception of sport competence. Moreover, feelings of physical exhaustion where experienced only among those with a low task¬ oriented goal.
Thus, positive aff2ctive and cognitive outcomes in P.E. are apparently more easily eased by pupils with a motivational achievement goal that includes self-referenced criteria for success and competence. Positive motivational and affective outcomes for pupils in P.E. are important, because they may substantially affect the students learning and achievement in t this setting.
AS already mentioned. pupils who hold an ego-oriented achievement goal and also doubt their ability in P.E. should be particularly at risk for developing dysfunctional achievement behavior and experiencing negative motivational and affective outcomes. The chapter will now have a look at some empirical evidence dealing with the issue of whether an ego-oriented goal is maladaptive independent of pupils' perceptions of ability.
In a study conducted within the context of P.E. in a secondary comprehensive school, Goudas, Biddle, and For. (1994a) divided pupils’ into groups based on different combinations of scores on task-and ego-oriented achievement goals. The focus of the study was on the effects of physical fitness testing upon intrinsic motivational outcomes. They found the following. Pupils clearly varied in their scores on intrinsic motivation Variations in intrinsic motivation were related to specific combinations o scores on their dispositional achievement goals, their perceived success and their performance on the fitness test. Pupils with a high test performance and those who 4 ,successful reported laugher intrinsic motivation than their counterparts: lover importantly, pupils in the high task/low ego achievement goal group who performed below average on the test had significantly higher scores on intrinsic motivation (enjoyment/interest/ effort) in comparison with the high ego/low task group. This implies that high task/low ego pupils are able to maintain high intrinsic motivation even when their fitness test performances are rather weak
Taken together, the so results demonstrate that motivational and affective outcomes of P.E. lessons that include fitness testing depend upon pupils' dispositional motivational goal orientations. More specifically, teachers should be aware that pupils with a high task/low ego achievement goal may benefit tans from fitness testing in terms of intrinsic motivation. Accordingly, under fitness , test conditions, groups of pupils who are less able should benefit the most with respect to keeping a high degree of intrinsic motivation if P.E. teachers encourage them to utilize self-referenced criteria for their performances on such tests.
Research has also examined cognitive determinants of intrinsic motivational outcomes in soccer, netball, and gymnastics. For example, Goudas, Biddle, and Fox (1994b) conducted a study among pupils aged 12 to 14 years for this purpose. The determinants included achievement goals, perceived competence, and perceived, autonomy, whereas intrinsic motivational outcomes were measured in terms of enjoyment and invested effort. Intrinsic motivation significantly differed among pupils, and some pupils had very low intrinsic motivation.
What characterized these pupils' cognitions? First, their achievement goals were highly ego orients, and they perceived their competence as being low. Clearly, this stud), also attests the view that to enhance motivation for pupils with a sense of low confidence in P .E., work aimed at creating a task ¬oriented motivational climate should particularly important.
Second, this study also revealed that high intrinsic interest in PE. activities was related to perceived autonomy sherbet a sense of performing P.E. activities without any external rewards or contingencies is do incant. This supports Deci and Ryan's (1985) cognitive evaluation theory. Their theory maintains that the degree of autonomy people feel in their actions is an important determinant of intrinsic motivation.
The important role of high perceived autonomy was also revealed by additional results. These showed that the effect of perceived competence on intrinsic motivation was moderated by the level of perceived self ¬determination. In other words, to maintain intrinsic motivation, the importance of a sense of self-determination seems to be no less important `than high perceived competence.
To summarize, the findings explored in this part of the chapter are : important from a pedagogical point of view. The results point to several necessary factors that teachers have to take into account to develop both adaptive learning strategies and their students' intrinsic interest and positive affect towards physical education activities. Specifically, trying to promote a task-oriented motivational dim ate seems important. When trying to do so, however, installing criteria for success among the pupils that are self referenced may not be enough. Teachers should also make sure that pupils can choose from several activities in which to participate and that students feel they can take part without adverting td external regulations.
So far, the chapter has suggested several recommendations dealing with the promotion of positive motivational and affective outcomes of P.E. In particular, the authors have emphasized the positive motivational and affective implications of holding a task-oriented achievement goal: In addition, they have recommended that teachers should work towards a task-oriented motivational climate in their classes. Can you trust these recommendations? In order to answer this more adequately, the chapter will next explore us ether motivational and affective outcomes are in fact influenced be perceptions of the motivational climate and whether achievement goals are amenable to change.

The Features of a Task-Oriented Motivational Climate

What features of a task-oriented motivational climate are so important they promote positive affective and motivational outcomes? First, a task-oriented climate seems to be characterized by teachers who are satisfied when the pupils learn new skills and improve. Second, in a task-cordierite climate, the PE. teacher also emphasizes that making Mistakes’ is an integral part of learning (see figure 4.2) (Ames, 1992; ,Papaioannou, I994). Third, a task-oriented motivational climate is also facilitated by presenting a variety of activities and tasks that are optimally challenging for pupils with different abilities. Fourth, teaching style alb matters. Teachers who invite pupils to solve movement problems P.E. classes and encourage them to focus on the learning task may facilitate task involvement. This approach to teaching may stimulate pupils to ask questions such as, how can I do this task?' As a consequence, pupils may more easily see that mastery, rather than being more able than other pupils, is equivalent to progressing and accomplishing tasks.
A task-oriented climate also seems to be comprised of perceptions o: teacher support and possible pupil involvement in decision making, thereby stimulating autonomy. Thus, a task-oriented motivational climate may be congruent with the concept of autonomy within cognitive evaluation theory (Deci & Ryan, 1985). This is important because perceived autonomy is regarded as a basic element of intrinsic motivation.
Support of autonomy seems to help develop a sense of self-determination in pupils. In particular, a sense of choice and volition seems to be integral to feeling self-determined. Thus, PE. teachers may develop a task-oriented climate leading to greater satisfaction and intrinsic interest by also providing support of autonomy among pupils, by minimizing pressure, and by acknowledging students' feelings and perspectives.
After this exploration of the characteristics of achievement goals and different motivational climates, more evidence is needed about the factual role of these constructs as regards psychological outcomes of P.E. The chapter will now review what some of the research says.

The Role of the Perceived Motivational Climate

According to achievement goal theory, situational factors such as the motivational climate play a substantial role in the activation of pupils' ¬achievement goals (Amps, 1.992). As such, achievement goal theory emphasizes the role of both personal (goals) and situational characteristics (climate) in affecting motivational and affective outcomes (Ommundsen, Roberts, & Kavussanu,l998). Pupils' perception of the motivational climate is important because of the increased probability of influencing the state of motivational involvement (ego or task oriented) if changes within the climate take place. This particular aspect will be considered in more detail later. In a similar manner as with depositional achievement goals, the motivational climate influences whether achievement cognition., affective states, and behaviors should be characterized as adaptive or maladaptive. Thus, the motivational climate influences motivational and affective outcome in two ways. First, in the long run, a consistent and stable motivational climate will influence and thus characterize the individual's goal orientation (Cur), Biddle, Famese, Goudas, Sarrazin, &.Durand,1996). In this way, the motivational climate, if consistent over time, may indirectly influence pupils' motivational and affective outcomes in RE by influencing their achievement goals. This way of thinking about the effects of the motivational climate seems to represent the socialization element of the achievement goal theory.
Second, the pupils' interpretation or perception of environmental/ situational cues, rewards, and expectations in the PE class also directly encourages a particular involvement or goal state. The way pupils interpret situational characteristics and cues influences, the degree to which task or ego/performance oriented features of the motivational climate will be perceived as salient. Ames (1992) distinguished between competitive goal reward structures that foster interest in social comparison (ego/performance-oriented motivational climate) and individualized structures that reward improvement. The latter therefore encourages pupils to focus on the value of mastery, progress, improvement, and performance consistency overtime (task-oriented motivational-climate).
In fact, the saliency of the motivational climate created in particular achievement situations may be so strong as to override the effects of the pupils' dispositional achievement goals regarding the effects upon adaptive versus maladaptive achievement cognitions and behavior. This aspect will be considered in more detail later. The chapter will now explore the characteristics of pupils' perceptions of the situational context in P.E. by using a task oriented motivational climate as the example.

The Adoption of Pupils’ Achievement Goals: Developmental Aspects

According to Nicholls (19b9), children pass through four distinct developmental stages on their way to attaining a mature or differentiated conception of ability. Without going into details about each of these stages, some main features should be mentioned. This developmental process takes place approximately from four to twelve years of age. At an early developmental stage, all children hold a predominantly task-oriented achievement goal in which they make use of an undifferentiated conception of ability. This implies that Young children view effort and ability as co varying. Put differently, for the Young ones, high ability means giving maximum effort. At an early developmental stage, therefore, Showing high effect is unconditionally viewed as something positive among children. In order to be predominantly ego oriented, however, pupils need to have reached a higher developmental stage in which they are cognitively capable of acquiring the differentiated view of ability. Having reached this developmental stage, pupils can now construe ability in a normative sense and in a capacity sense. To illustrate when students observe that they can handle a certain difficulty level more efficiently than others (that is, obtaining the same result with less effort), they understand that they possess more ability/stronger capacity than others. Having reached this developmental level, social comparison with fellow pupils takes on increased importance to them: Social comparison and reference norms now have the potential of-becoming a main criteria by which these students assess their own abilities¬
At this more advanced developmental stage, pupils distinguish the concepts of effort and ability. Being able means being better than others. They still believe that their capacity is enhanced by spending maximal effort. Nevertheless, these students now clearly view their ability as limited by their capacity and understand that high effort cannot compensate for lack of capacity.
To summarize, to adopt an ego-oriented achievement goal, pupils must have acquired a differentiated conception or mature understanding of ability. After having reached this stage, spending maximum effort may be more problematic. It might indicate low ability under conditions of low performance for pupils in a state of ego involvement. Researchers; therefore, have called this phenomenon effort-a double-edged sword.
Developing an ego-oriented achievement goal also requires that pupils can distinguish between other concepts: luck and chance versus skill and ability, and skill and ability versus task difficulty. First, when the concepts of chance and luck begin to separate from those of skill. and ability, children no longer think that performing tasks in which the outcome is determined by chance can be influenced by practice, effort, ability, or age. Distinguishing skill and ability from task difficulty requires students to comprehend that some tasks are more difficult than others based on how many pupils can successfully complete the task. For example, when children have became capable of differentiating the concepts of skill and ability from task difficulty failing a task at which many others succeed now implies low ability.
According to achievement goal theory, children are by. nature task oriented until they have developmentally progressed through these stages. Accordingly, in the early stages, all children are predominantly, adaptive in terms of achievement, behaviors, such as not giving up when facing failure or difficulties. Moreover, they seem to have a general sense of mastery and mainly expect to perf6rm positively in the future. Nicholls (1959) has investigated these developmental processes among children. He found that most children do not achieve a completely differentiated or mature conception of ability until approximately 12 years of age. The existence of these developmental stages has been successfully replicated in the physical domain.
Developmental phases such as these should not be regarded, however, as static Cognitive processes do not simply unfold in a more or less orderly way. Indeed, contexts factors such as the motivational climate may interact with developmentally based cognitions. This highlights the psychological role of the P.E. teacher in creating a positive teaching/ learning atmosphere.
As a consequence of the potentially negative contextual influence even at early class levels, P.E. lessons may, by inducing an ego/performance oriented climate, make pupils vulnerable to adopting tin ego-oriented state. Consequently, even pupils in the early grades may derive negative motivational and affective outcomes from P.E. Psychological outcomes and the role of the perceived motivational climate will be considered next.

The Interplay Inter play Between Achievement Goals and Perceptions of Ability

According to achievement goal theory, from a motivational, affective, and learning standpoint, pupils in physical education should be in a state of predominant task involvement in this state, a person's criteria for determining his or her mastery and success are mainly personally controllable. How may success then become more personally controllable? Perceived ability in a normative or social-comparison sense becomes irrelevant when in a state of task involvement. Pupils holding a task¬ oriented achievement goal focus on mastering learning activities, progressing, and doing the activities, not on being better than others. In contrast, predominantly high ego/performance-oriented pupils are generally in much more difficult and less personally controllable situations. They continually need to demonstrate; ability and maintain the high perceptions of competence when ability is judged by comparisons. When they do accomplish this, however these students feel positive affect, have positive adaptive cognitions, and sustain motivational behaviors. Consequently, pupils with predominantly ego-oriented achievement goals may still engage in adaptive achievement behaviors and derive positive motivational and affective outcomes out of P.E. participation. This will occur as long as they perceive themselves as high in ability. By contrast, ego-involved pupils who doubt their abilities seem far more vulnerable to developing maladaptive achievement behaviors and experiencing negative motivational and affective outcomes. Remember that few pupils are capable of consistently being better than their classmates. Many reasons could cause a-performance to end up worse than those of other classmates in P.E. These-reasons include injury, having a bad "day, and reasons that often are beyond pupils' personal control. Accordingly, many pupils who hold a predominantly ego-oriented achievement goal run the risk of developing low perceived competence in a normative sense.
Pupils who hold a task-oriented achievement goal make use of an undifferentiated conception of ability; whereas those -in a predominant state of ego involvement utilize a differentiated conception of ability. Embedded in pupils' cognitive development are different developmental stages towards the attainment of a mature and differentiated conception of ability. Thus, in terms of motivational and affective outcomes, the interlay between different achievement goals and perceived ability becomes particularly important when pupils have reached the developmental stage of a mature and differentiated conception of ability. Such developmental stages are considered next.

Characteristics of Pupils' Achievement Goals

Fundamental to achievement goal theory is the notion that when pupils are confronted with achievement situations, their goal is to demonstrate competence. Competence or ability, however, may be construed differently among pupils. Pupils adopt a personal theory of achievement in which dispositional achievement goals play a predominant role, Embedded in an ego-oriented dispositional achievement goal is the goal of demonstrating ability in terms of norm-referenced criteria (such as doing better, than or outperforming others). In this case, pupils are in a state of ego involvement. By contrast, if the goal is to demonstrate ability in terms of self-referenced criteria (such as improvement or just completing the task with maximum effort), then pupils have a task oriented dispositional achievement goal in this case, pupils are in a state of task involvement.
According to achievement goal theory, dispositional achievement goals are independent. Thus, pupils may be high or low on both goals as well as high on one and low on the other (any combination of the two is possible). Achievement goals are also related to the different ways pupils view the possibility of developing their abilities. A task-oriented achievement goals is associated with an incremental view in which ability is seen as an acquirable skill. In contrast, an ego-oriented achievement goal is associated with a view of ability as a natural gift and less under one's personal control (an entity,. view). The reader should, consult the chapter by Sarrazin and Famose for further elaboration of this issue as well as the concept of achievement goals.

The Achievement Goal Approach

In the part of the chapter, you will first learn more about the essentials of pupils' achievement goals and their development. Second, the chapter will explore the contextual dimension dealing with pupils' perception of the motivational climate. Third, the chapter will deal with the motivational and affective outcomes of P.E. A selection of the empirical research investigating motivational and affective outcome's in P.E, the role of dispositional goals, and the perceived motivational climate upon these outcomes will be reviewed.
Psychological outcomes pertaining to self-esteem and social-moral reasoning and behavior will be presented separately from the achievement goal approach. This seems reasonable given that other theoretical models have been considered as the main theoretical underpinnings of these particular outcomes so far. However, when dealing with self-esteem and social-moral aspects, connections to the achievement goal perspective will be made in cases of relevance.