Metro Sports

Bascom World: Breast Enhancement Therapy For Each Individual

2009-10-31T18:02:00.000-07:00

Bascom World: Breast Enhancement Therapy For Each Individual

Bascom World: How Low Libido Affects Women versus Men

2009-10-31T18:01:00.000-07:00

Bascom World: How Low Libido Affects Women versus Men

Bascom World: Screening For Breast Cancer

2009-10-31T18:00:00.000-07:00

Bascom World: Screening For Breast Cancer

Bascom World: Perubahan Fisiologis Masa Nifas

2009-10-31T17:57:00.000-07:00

Bascom World: Perubahan Fisiologis Masa Nifas

Competitive Sports as Lifetime Activities

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Certainly competitive sports can be an appro¬priate way to stay physically active. Many communities have full leagues for sports such as basketball, volleyball, and softball. Most of these sports provide appropriate activity, but this isn't always the case, especially with softball, for example, where sometimes a participant may get less activity from playing in a game than he or she would from raking the leaves or going on a moderately paced walk. However, even though many adults do participate in competitive sports throughout their entire lives, the majority of older adults do not choose competition as a means for developing and maintaining health-related fitness. Thus, while it is important to provide support to the student who currently values athletics, it is even more important to make it clear to the rest of your students that participating in sports is not necessary to achieving or maintaining health-related fitness-it is simply one option for those who are interested. Help your students set realistic competitive and noncompetitive expectations for themselves, based on interest, time, and other factors. Point out that adults who do compete generally do so for fun, not glory, status, or money. Invite local adult sport league participants to share with your students the various sports available in your community

Overcoming Barriers to Participating in Lifetime Activities

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Adults list many barriers to participation in physical activity as excuses not to exercise (see also chapter 2). Show students how to overcome these barriers through your health related physical fitness education curricu¬lum :

1. Fear of the unfamiliar
Curriculum decision guidelines: Allow middle school students to sample a wide variety oi activities.

2. Expense
Curriculum decision guidelines: Respect economic diversity by helping students explore equipment and facility options (e.g., the YMCA is cheaper than an upscale fitness club and provides financial aid to those who qualify) as well as physical activity options that do not require equipment or special facilities at all. Point out the benefits of lifestyle activities to health and fitness (e.g., mowing a larger lawn with a push mower or walking briskly to school are certainly workouts).

3. Fear or dislike of competition
Curriculum decision guidelines: While people may naturally compete, physical education programs need not emphasize it. Instead, emphasize cooperation and intrinsic motivation over competition and extrinsic rewards. Make competition simply one choice for those who enjoy it.

4. Lack of skill or the perception one must be good at something to benefit from it
Curriculum decision guidelines: Help stu¬dents learn to recognize the need for skill utilization (e.g., dribbling competently with the feet to play better and to gain more aerobic endurance benefits in soc¬cer), rather than think they have to master them completely. Teach students to analyze their skills. Individualize skill development instruction. Allow older students to specialize more to develop feel¬ings of competence. Emphasize enjoyment can be had with competent but not excellent skills.

5. Lack of knowledge
Curriculum decision guidelines: Integrate the whys of health-related fitness pur¬suits into the fun activities that develop health-related fitness components.

6. Time
Curriculum decision guidelines: Work on a district wide basis to develop time man¬agement skills in students. Show students ways to make time for fitness in their lifestyle routines (e.g., taking stairs instead of elevators). Emphasize that the new health-related fitness guidelines vali¬date the effectiveness of several short bursts of activity; that is, you don't have to block out one large amount of time per day to achieve basic health-related fit¬ness benefits. Invite guest speakers (e.g., parents, community leaders) from many different walks of life to share how they keep fit within the framework of their responsibilities, resources, and interests.

Taking an Age-Appropriate Approach

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Effective lifetime activity curricula is vastly different for a primary grade (K-3) student than a high school student. Thus, unit and activity selection should occur along a continuum from completely childlike to as adult like in nature as possible. To select specific age, appropriate lifetime activity curricula, work on a district wide basis and design down from high school, ensuring appropriate progression and minimizing unnecessary duplication. Then the elementary and middle school teachers can see what they need to focus on so that students are academically and physically prepared for the high school program. Figure 11.3 shows a sample continuum for aerobic endurance activities that proceed from very childlike activities in the early grades to very adult like activities in high school.
But how can you call a tag game a "lifetime activity?" It is not, but a kindergartner would almost certainly find a more adult like activity, such as jogging for 20 minutes, boring (and maybe dangerous). In addition, tag is an activ¬ity children engage in when they are playing on their own, so it makes sense to validate it in health-related physical fitness learning. Keeping our ultimate goal in mind, tag is one of the more appropriate ways to develop a love for aerobic endurance activity in the early grades, thereby feeding into the middle and high school programs. In short, students who enjoy aerobic endurance activities in the early grades are more likely to be open to developing themselves in this area in later school years and on into adulthood. The same is true for any component of health-related fitness. As another example, a high school student who has set a personal goal of playing more forcefully on her roller hockey team may find lifting weights interesting, while a second grader will benefit more physically and psychologically from developing muscu¬lar strength and endurance on playground equipment.
At the same time, remember to individual¬ize so that, within a developmental level, you are providing a range of appropriate challenges, giving the low-fit or low-skilled student a chance to enjoy your program as much as the average to high-fit or highly skilled student (see also chapter 13).
Another way to think of a lifetime activity curricula continuum is to consider a diamond shaped framework. Within the diamond curriculum f framework, elementary level students develop the basic skills and concepts (both fitness and movement related) they need to ultimately be able to enjoy lifetime activities (see Don't Forget Skills Development). Middle school students then use these skills to sample a wide variety of physical activities. This gives students the opportunity to form personal opinions about various activities and sports. Then high school students select a few physical activities in which to specialize and around which they may build personal physical activity plans. The foundation of basic skills in elementary school and development of proficiency in self ¬selected areas in high school forms a continuum that is likely to lead to positive adult health-related fitness behaviors

Developing Activities For Teaching Lifelong Fitness

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Activities that help students learn while doing are the most successful for teaching lifelong fitness. The Physical Best activity guides provide a wealth of activities designed specifically to help students learn through doing These are a great start to developing an excellent program, but you'll want to add more activities especially suited for your students. Following is a step-by-step procedure for developing your own activities.
Carefully consider the level of the students for which you're develop¬ing the activity.
Write out the concept you wish to teach, using language appropriate for the level you are teaching.
Spell out the purpose of the activity. What do you want your students to learn?
Determine what equipment you'll need.
Define the relationship of this activity to the national standards. This helps you keep your curriculum fo¬cused.
Write a set induction- How will you prepare students to learn,?
Develop a step-by-step procedure P~ for leading the activity: You might modify this after you've done the activity a few times and worked the "bugs" out
Think about what teaching hints you'll need to be aware of. Write this down so when you have a substitute, the sub can take advantage of your experience.
Remember to include a closure and an assessment for the activ¬ity. Check for student understanding.
Finally, plan for ways of extending the lesson. If the activity goes well, you'll want to challenge your students to take it to the next level or further assimilate the learning.

My Body
Primary Level
Growth and developmental influences on body composition Your body is made of billions of cells that need all type of foods to live. Your body shape and share type and size are influenced by many factors, some of which you can control an which you cannot. The uncontrollable factors are your genetics (family history) age, and gender. Controllable factors are how much you eat, and how much physical activity you do.

Purpose
Students will understand the factors that influence their body shape, type, and size and understand the uniqueness of each person and how each person is different in his or her nutrient and physical activity requirements.
Equipment Needed
- Variety of balls, such as, playground, Nerf tennis
- Hula hoops
Relationship to National Standards
Physical Education Standard 3: Student exhibits a physically active life style. ¬Student will identify the benefits derived from regular physical activity.
Health Education Standard 1: Student will comprehend concepts related to health promotion and disease prevention student will describe relationships between personal health behaviors and individual well-being.
Set Induction
If time allows use an ink pad and fingerprint each child. Have student compare the fingerprint with everyone else’s to show how everyone is different. The fingerprint are all different just like the bodies arc all different and come in all different sizes colors, and shapes.
Explain that etch student will choose the ball they will use fur thus activity. Explain that their choices am similar to their fingerprints and bodies, in that everyone has their own and that are not always the same as he other classmates.
Procedure
1. Place a variety of types and sizes of balls about the activity are in hoops and allow students to use any size ball they are comfortable with.
2. Take students through a series of manipulative skills (e.g., toss and catch, ball handling, bounce and catch, roll" catch, dribbling partner skills and soon) offering students two or three challenges in each of the skill categories.
3. Explain that we are not all the same size. Many factors influence our size and shape, such as what we do and eat and the family we come from (our parents).

Teaching Hints
Be sure to allow each student to select the ball he or she is comfortable with. Add claps, turns. and so on to the skills you're using to increase the level of challenge. Make sure that there are more than enough balls for every student in order that the majority get their choice.

Closure and Assessment
Written and Oral
- Ask “What lesson did I wart you to team at-out body composition by participating in today's activity?¬
Project
- Direct students to do the following: "Ask you- mom or dad for the following recent photos: of you, of your mom or dad, and of that parent’s parents. Try to get photos that arc of each person's whole body. Paste the photos side by side on a sheet of paper. Compare body shapes, type, and size. (Note: You may choose to make a sample photo array to use for comparison, rather than having all students bring in photos.)

Extending the Lesson
- Have each student draw a pic¬ture of her family involved in physical activity.
- Have each student draw a pic¬ture of himself doing his favorite activity or something he likes about himself.

Selecting Appropriate Lifetime Activities
Lifetime activity refers to activities that are accessible and enjoyable throughout one's life, especially those that adults are most likely to engage in regularly for recreational and health related fitness reasons over the course of a lifetime. What constitutes "accessible" and "enjoyable" will vary from individual to individual, of course, depending on an individual's interests, locale, and skills. Career and financial constraints may also play a role in an individual's choice of lifetime activities.

Determine Unit Outcomes

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Units and their outcomes are the "nuts and bolts" of a solid health-related physical fitness education program. Look more closely at specifics relevant to your local situation. When selecting and designing units, take into account the facilities, equipment, community opportunities, and student ages and interests. For example, if youth and adult soccer leagues are popular in your area, you might
It is important to take into account student interest when designing courses. If, for example, aversion of swing dance is popular with teenagers in your community, it might be a good choice for a dance unit include having the students form letters with their bodies, thereby integrating rereading skills, or a lesson on aerobic endurance can reinforce a science unit on the cardio respiratory system. Likewise, movement can be integrated into other subjects. For example, class¬room teachers can use movement to check for academic understanding (e.g., have stu¬dents divide the class into thirds, fourths, and so on) or to reinforce learning (e.g., moving through a simulated nervous system to understand how the brain and nerves work together to send and receive messages). Encourage older students to integrate fitness and movement skills and concepts into academic projects, such as creating and implementing a health-related fitness program appropriate for senior citizens as part of a service learning project.
Make logical and natural connections between subject areas; however, don't force them. They must make sense to everyone, especially the students. This will better simu¬late real-world approaches to problems, deepening student understanding.

General Strategies for Developing a Curriculum

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All curricular plans-no matter what the subject area-should be based on the desired outcomes, that is, what you want the student to know and be able to do. So before planning your curriculum, identify the exit outcomes you want students leaving your program to have achieved. Exit out corners are the ultimate desired achievements of students who gradu¬ate from a K-12 curriculum (e.g., the national standards). Then set intermediate outcomes that students should achieve at each stage in your program as well 'as on completion of each unit and lesson.
The Physical Best program uses the national standards developed by national orga¬nizations, including NASPE (AAHPERD), for physical education, health education (AAHE), and dance education (NDA) and their corresponding standards are also supported and reinforced by Physical Best programs. Collectively, these standards help determine exit outcomes and developmentally appropriate curricula that will help students achieve the ultimate goal of becoming adults who value and pursue active lifestyles. Remember, Physical Best is not intended to replace existing curricula, but rather to complement and support other programs. Appendix A also lists the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention's Guidelines for School and Com¬munity Programs to Promote Lifelong Physical Activity Among Young People (1997).

Teaching Approaches Involving Learners in Many Decisions: Indirect Styles

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Indirect teaching styles involve discovering. exploring, selecting from alternatives, and seeking solutions to problems or tasks designed and presented by the teacher. The teacher usually preplans a sequence of challenge tasks or movement questions with more than one answer. Indi¬rect teaching calls for varied responses, whereas the direct style would call for a particular response from each child. As the children are solving a given problem in a series, the teacher may move around the playground and give individual assistance, which may include some direct teaching. Students can be arranged in any formation and can work alone, with a partner, or in groups. The teacher presents the problem, provides time for students to experiment and explore, and encourages stu¬dents to think critically about a solution.
At the primary level, an indirect approach can be quite effective in teaching lessons designed to vary movement patterns using the elements of movement (space, qualities, and relationships). Older children can explore relationships, direction, and variations using basic sport skills. Ex¬amples of movement problems for younger children and possible responses and extensions are presented in table 10.1. The problems and the extensions are designed from the movement con¬cepts presented in chapter 9. Movement problems for older children might be designed for a specific sport. Table 10.1 presents problems for soccer.
Guided discovery is an indirect approach used when the teacher wants the students to discover a solution through a series of questions. This approach is a convergent, problem-solving process in which a predetermined answer or response is wanted by the teacher. With a series of well ¬designed questions, the teacher leads the students to the desired movement response. Another indi¬rect approach used by teachers is exploration, which is an open-ended, divergent, problem-solv¬ing process. In this style, there are no predetermined or correct answers; the goal is for students to explore and create solutions on their own
Physical education teachers have recently been encouraged to promote a learning environment that will encourage students to think critically (Werner 1995). It is believed that the more indi¬rect styles of teaching are needed to accomplish this goal (Anderson, Reder, and Simon 1998). Critical thinking involves choosing from alternatives, applying knowledge in new situations, and analyzing and evaluating information. Students who think critically process information at a higher level.

Summary
A number of different teaching approaches can be used in physical education. Each one has a set of assets and liabilities. Students can become competent in many movement forms, can learn to ap¬ply concepts and principles to learning, and can achieve a health-enhancing level of physical fitness in classes using either a direct or an indirect approach. They can demonstrate responsible personal and social behavior, develop respect for differences

Cooperative Learning

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Cooperative learning is a teaching approach designed to encourage students to take responsibility for their own learning and to work cooperatively with a group to accomplish a goal. Using this format, students are usually assigned to heterogeneous groups with equal representation of students of different races, ethnic origins, social classes, and gender. Students are presented with a problem or a question and given time to solve the problem or answer the question. The prob¬lem might be to create a ball game that uses throw¬ing and catching or discover ways to explain the meaning of balance. It is important to establish guidelines for cooperative work. Everyone in the group must participate in the assigned work; however, only one student may talk at a time, and the others must listen quietly. Everyone must show respect for others. It is important that each stu¬dent assume responsibility for her own work as well as the work of the entire group. The group is not successful unless all students accomplish the goal, so students are encouraged to help each other. Before assigning a cooperative activity, teachers should set the stage by discussing the following concepts with the class:

Why groups fail to solve the problem (the problem is too difficult; group members fight with one another)
How group members have their feelings hurt (others are not listening; they are unable to help)
What makes groups successful (taking turns, sharing responsibility, respecting others)
After the activity, discuss what worked and what did not with the class. Focus on groups with positive interactions and results.

Cooperative discussion groups can be used to get students to think about the importance of individual effort and social responsibility. For ex¬ample, the following topics could be used at the beginning of the school year to emphasize the importance of working hard and following the rules set for the class:

Describe a student who doesn't try in physical education.
What should we do if some students don't try?
What would our class be like if nobody tried'?
How should we deal with Students who always want to argue with other students and the teacher?
How should we deal with students who shove or hit other students?

Individualized Teaching With Task Sheets and Contracts

2009-10-27T01:12:00.000-07:00

Task sheets can also be used to communicate the activities to be accomplished to individual stu¬dents. Students can work alone or with partners, but there is always opportunity for individual pro¬gression. The sheets can be designed for varying lengths of time, and students can work on the same or different skills. Task sheets may provide some tips for performance, but initial instruction and demonstration should be given for new skills. Task sheets are more often used to refine skills. In work¬ing with a partner, this approach allows for valu¬able evaluation and feedback. Figures 10.4 and 10.5 show two types of task sheets.
Learning contracts provide an excellent way to begin shifting decision-making responsibility from the teacher to the learner. A teacher-student contract is a written agreement of what the student is to accom¬plish in a specified time period. There are several types of contracts; each requires a different amount of student responsibility. Contract teaching should allow varying amounts of time for completing tasks and should provide opportunity for independent work. The student choice contract provides a list of activities, and each usually has a point value. Students can choose from the tasks and work at individual rates, but they should be encouraged to select tasks that match beginning competency levels. Figure 10.6 shows an example of a student choice contract.
An open-ended contract gives the student the most responsibility: The student simply lists the skills to be mastered and the time needed to accomplish them. Figure 10.7 is an example of a contract designed for basketball by a fifth-grade student. Open ended contracts can also be used for doing physical fitness activities outside class

Teaching Approaches With Some Learner Involvement

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As mentioned earlier, some teaching approaches fall between the two extremes of the direct and indirect approaches; these are station teaching, individualized instruction, and cooperative learn¬ing. Many movement tasks and sport skills can be practiced effectively using a station approach to teaching. With this format, the teacher usually decides which activities will be practiced, but stu¬dents can practice different tasks and can progress at individual rates. Station teaching is an effec¬tive way to practice after the initial introduction of a skill or movement. It can be used in both pri¬mary and upper grades. When learning stations are used, the teacher sets up several practice areas in the gymnasium or on the playground. This arrangement is similar to learning centers in a classroom and circuit training in physical fitness. Lessons can be designed for practicing different skills or different levels of a particular skill. Stu¬dents are divided into groups, and each group is assigned to a station. The teacher usually signals when the groups are to rotate. After children have some experience working independently at completion of all the tasks Or activities, they can progress individually to the next group. (Tasks are usually communicated to the learners with task sheets or posters.) This frees the teacher to work with children who are having trouble or to evaluate individual students.
One example of a station learning arrangement. The tasks shown in the figure are appropriate for second-grade, children. Each station should have enough equipment for five children to participate at the same time. To make sure students understand what to do at each station, the teacher should explain and demonstrate. The task sheets, posters, and other remind¬ers at each station are also helpful. The same ac¬ivities can be used effectively for practice of sport skills in the upper grades. Ability grouping for sport-skill practice allows a range of skill levels within an age group. Usually, each station is planned with progressive tasks, but it is also de¬sirable to have some stations designed specifically for those students who would benefit from modi¬fied (lower-level) or extended (higher-level) tasks. In most sport-skill lessons, students tend to accomplish more if grouped with children of similar skill (Thomas 1994)

Approaches With No Learner Involvement: Direct Teaching

2009-10-27T01:09:00.000-07:00

Many lessons are taught most appropriately with the direct style. If the lesson objective is for all students to perform a particular movement in a particular way and learning can be enhanced by listening to a verbal description and observing a model, then direct teaching is appropriate. Skills such as the forward roll, the standing long jump, or three-beanbag juggling can be taught effectively by the direct style. The organizational arrangement for direct approaches is usually teaching the whole class, but other formations can be used, such as partners or small groups. The goal is for the teacher to direct all aspects of the class, but movement tasks of varying difficulty can be offered for students at different developmental levels. Students should be arranged so that all can see and hear, because the teacher delivers all the content and determines the pace of the class. The teacher explains the movement or movement sequence, remembering to include well selected cues; dem¬onstrates all or part of the skill; signals the learners to repeat the movement demonstrated one or more times; observes the performance of students rind provides feedback and, eventually, evaluates the final achievement. In a direct approach, the teacher controls all aspects of the class.
The direct style is a good choice for teachers when the lesson involves introduction of a new skill or when safety is an issue. This format allows complete teacher control and is useful with classes that are difficult to manage. Often, after students spend some time in controlled practice, they should be able to manage their own behavior well enough to be provided with more opportunities for decision making and individualized practice. Several guidelines are important for successful use of direct teaching :
• Always have a signal (e.g., a drumbeat or a verbal command) to get the attention of the class.
Students are not involved in decision making
Direct approach Students are involved in some decisions
Students are involved in many decisions

Indirect approach

Try to provide for maximum practice (e.g., use small groups for drills). Never have chil¬dren stand in long lines.

Most important, remember the responsibilities of the teacher in motor skill learning, discussed These include identifying the skill level of the child on a task and providing for developmentally appropriate practice so that every child finds success.
The direct style can also be applied in lessons where students play a new game of low organization, learn an aerobic dance or jump rope routine, or practice a folk or square dance. In these situations, it is desirable to guide the class through the steps or sequence using a structured approach.

Teaching Approaches

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Teaching approaches, teaching styles, and instructional strategies all refer to the ways teachers go about delivering the content of the lesson to students. Different styles or approaches are usually defined in terms of the amount of teacher control versus learner involvement in the lesson. A teacher might select a direct instruction approach, in which the emphasis is on class control, with little opportunity for students to choose between alternatives and make decisions about their own learning. Using this style, a teacher would give explicit instructions and provided clear description of what learners are to do. They would Specify how students should respond and direct all aspects of the class. Think of teaching styles on a continuum with a direct approach at one end and an indirect approach at the other. An indirect instruction approach is characterized by opportunities for student involvement with teachers establishing a learning environment that helps students discover solutions On their own. Indirect teaching would involve students in deci¬sion making at a maximum level. Teachers can select an approach that falls anywhere along the continuum from direct to indirect, depending on the goal of the lesson and the intended outcome.

Understanding What to Do About Body Composition

2009-10-27T01:02:00.000-07:00

What does this mean for children who are overweight and overly fat? The cycle of being fat, avoid¬ing activity, and becoming fatter makes the problem worse. Sometimes, teachers and coaches send negative messages to the overweight child. This can be as subtle as focusing on the lean or best performers or as obvious as saying, "If you are fat, you can't also be fit." We learned earlier that be¬ing inactive is a greater risk to health than being overweight. So, the message should be clear: Ac¬tivity is important to all people. At the same time, we need to recognize that overly fat children are working harder during physical activity because they carry extra fat. Overly fat children may feel self-conscious about their bodies or may have underlying problems that have caused or contrib¬ute to their obesity
One thing we can do to help is to make sure children understand that bodies are different and that there is not one perfect or most desirable body shape. Some differences in body shape are attributable to genetics; others are caused by what we eat and by our activity patterns. Further, we can prepare children for the bodily changes that will occur during adolescence. Finally, we can avoid using a simplistic approach to a complex problem. For example, in addition to body weight or fat, other measures of health risk can be exam¬ined. Waist-to-hip ratio (WHR), which is the cir¬cumference of the waist at the narrowest point divided by the circumference of the hips at the widest point, is a predictor of health risk. Large WHR is a predictor of risk; WF1Rs above 1.0 and .9 are identified as points of increased risk for males and females, respectively. Estimating body fat us¬ing skin-fold calipers is another way to examine risk. Good equipment and practice are necessary to accurately estimate fat. Some experts recommend tracking the sum of skin folds rather than calculating percent body fat (Lohman 1992). In the absence of good calipers and training, teachers should probably not estimate body fat. Under the best of circumstances, teachers should use more than one technique. Consider discussing BMI, WHR, and physical activity together to develop a risk profile. Further, we can encourage all children to seek healthy bodies that are neither too fat nor too frail nor thin.

Body Composition and Gender of Children

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Nearly from conception on, girls have more fat than-boys because girls have more estrogen. At puberty, when estrogen levels increase, so do fat levels. If girls do not have enough body fat, estro¬gen will drop and menstruation will cease until fat levels increase. Sometimes this happens with ath¬letes who are training; it is called secondary amen¬orrhea. In order to menstruate, girls and women need about 15 percent body fat (Sinning and Little 1987; Morrow, Jackson, Disch, and Mood 2000). Most girls have more than 15 percent fat. Obesity, or too much fat, begins at 20 percent for boys and 30 percent for girls (Morrow, et al. 2000). Approxi¬mately 1 in 4 children have too much fat; that is, they are obese based on percentage of body fat above 20 or 30 percent by gender. Girls are typi¬cally less active, which contributes to the higher percentage of body fat. The fact that girls are fat¬ter than boys can be blamed partially on biology but is attributable to environment (Thomas and French 1985). Gaining fat is easier for girls, thanks to estrogen, and encouraged in girls by socio cul¬tural norms, which suggest that girls should be less active than boys. Physical activity can facili¬tate weight control and healthy growth. This is an important fact to present to girls and boys.

Body Composition of Physical Activity For Children

2009-10-27T01:00:00.000-07:00

Obesity and being overweight are independent health risk factors. Physical inactivity is related to obesity and being overweight. Parents are con¬cerned about children who are overweight. The assumption is that excess weight is fat, so if you are overweight, you are too fat. People of all ages need some fat. Too much fat is unhealthy, how¬ever. The American College of Sports Medicine recommends maximum body fat of 14 to 19 per¬cent for males and 20 to 24 percent for females ages 20 to 60+ years. Body weight is made up of both fat and lean tissue. Remember that lean body mass is muscle, bone, organs, and all tissues other than fat. There is a second assumption about body weight and fat: that the bones are a constant den¬sity or mass. There are differences among races and across age in bone density, so this assump¬tion can be a problem. People who have "light" bones, or osteoporosis, could be in the normal weight range and still be too fat. Someone who has dense bones might be overweight yet have a low amount of body fat. The same could be true of a person who is very muscular. Muscle is dense and, as a result, heavy. Therefore, very athletic people with more than average muscle mass may weigh more than normal and still not have too much fat.
As we can see, body composition is a complex issue. Often, by trying to take something complex and make it simple, we make mistakes. A height and weight chart is simple to use but may not be accurate in determining who is at risk. The Body Mass Index (BMI) is a commonly used measure¬ment; basically, it is a height and weight chart. BMI is body weight in kilograms divided by height in meters squared. Mark McGwire of the St. Louis Cardinals is 6 feet 5 inches tall and weighs 250 pounds; his BMI is 29.7, which would label him with grade 1 obesity. A BMI of 29.7 for a male is significantly higher than that recommended for health, yet in terms of appearance or performance Mark McGwire would not be considered at risk. The point is that with BMI, height and weight can be deceiving. Further, considerable stigma can re¬sult from careless use of norms.
Muscle and bone tissues weigh more than fat and are healthy Individuals who have large, dense bones and greater than average muscle mass are likely to appear overweight based on BMI or height and weight charts, yet they are probably not too fat. On the other side of the continuum are those who have little muscle and bones that are less dense than expected. Very low BMI is also un¬healthy, particularly before 20 years of age. Dur¬ing growth-specifically, before 20 years of age ¬bones gain density. Dense bones have higher fracture points, which means the bones are more difficult to break. Bone density is a result of three factors: genetics, nutrition, and exercise (Bailey 2000, 2001). Adequate calcium and weight¬ bearing exercise produce healthy bones. From about 20 years of age onward, bones lose density.
Two things can be done about this loss: First, the bones should start out as dense as possible, which means that during childhood and adolescence, physical activity and calcium are critical: Second, the rate of loss should be as slow as possible; again, the critical factors are physical activity and calcium. For bone health, being underweight especially of lean body mass-is a greater risk than being overweight.
Study show exercise, is the best thing you can do to live longer. A new study suggest that exercising may be the single most important fac¬tor in extending your life." NBC's Robert Bazell reports the lead story on the March 13, 2002, NBC Nightly News. "A new study offers the strongest argument yet for getting fit. California research¬ers found that the a'6ility to exercise-as mea¬sured on a treadmill test-is more important in predicting how long a person will live than even obesity, heart disease, or smoking."

Musculoskeletal Function

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Girls and boys gain strength during childhood and adolescence. Part of this increase is caused by growth-bigger muscles and longer levers (limbs) generate more force, which translates to greater strength. As children grow, they become more ef¬ficient in the production of movements; this re¬sults in greater strength, as we learned in chapter 3. The nervous system recruits muscles more effi¬ciently, which also increases strength. So, strength increases because of growth, maturation, and practice. At puberty, testosterone levels increase in boys, and as a result, muscle mass increases. So, at around 13, girls gain fat and reach maturity whereas boys gain muscle and continue to grow and mature (Thomas and French 1985). Conse¬quently, muscle strength increases for boys and can be observed in tasks that require strength. Girls and boys are (and should be) similar in strength during childhood, although some tasks have large gender differences. Grip strength, sit-ups, and the vertical jump have small effect sizes until puberty (figure 6.3). Tasks that require up¬per-body strength, such as chin-ups and pull-ups, however, show large gender differences: Girls can do 0 to 1 chin-up and boys can do 1 to 10 chin-ups, on average, during elementary school, as you can see from figure 6.4. Practice is the most likely reason for the differences in these tasks; if girls were expected, encouraged, and practiced, their perfor¬mance would be similar to that of boys. Consider young female gymnasts, who demonstrate upper-body strength; clearly, it is possible for girls to do chin-ups!
Weight training for children is a controversial topic. The two most important issues are cost benefit trade-off and potential for injuries. Weight training takes a lot of time, and for prepubescent children, the gains are small (Faigenbaum, Westott, Loud, and Long 1999). Therefore, the time might be better spent doing something else, such as practicing skill (COPEC 1998). As children are growing, there is risk of injury; training regimens that are low intensity (low weight), however, can be safe (LePostellec 2002). Specific guidelines for prepubescent weight training are available (Kraemer and Fleck 1992). One critical component of weight training for children is involving a teacher or coach who is certified to coach young children (Kraemer and Fleck 1992). Generally, weight training is not a good use of physical edu¬cation time during elementary school.
Most children do well on the sit-up tests, al¬though practice and training are important. Scores often decrease from spring to fall, however, which suggests that practice during physical education improves performance. Girls are more flexible than boys in a comparison of test scores for the sit and reach. Again, practice is the most likely cause of these differences. Flexibility is the easiest compo¬nent of fitness to train and the first to deteriorate when we are inactive. Most of us have experienced a time when movement was restricted and flex¬ibility was significantly reduced.
Muscle strength, muscle endurance, and flexibil¬ity improve with training. While gender differences are observed in these components of fitness, no biological reason for the differences is evident before puberty. Therefore, teachers and parents should encourage and expect boys and girls to practice a variety of activities that will maintain or enhance skill performance, such as sit-ups, sit and reach, and pull-ups

Biological And Physical Differences In Children

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The discussion in chapter 3 on growth and matu¬ration demonstrated that children are not smaller versions of adults. This concept translates into children exercising differently than adults do. The body makes two major adjustments during aero¬bic exercise (prolonged, rhythmic exercise like jogging, running, or cycling). First, muscles do their work during exercise by using fuel (food) and oxygen. The more intense the work, the more oxy¬gen and fuel used. The oxygen is used very rap¬idly, so the blood must deliver more oxygen (and fuel, too, but this is not a major issue at most lev¬els and durations of exercise) as work continues or increases. This means the lungs and heart must work harder. As a general rule, respiration and heart rate increase with the intensity of the exer¬cise. At some point, the circulatory system can no longer keep up in delivering oxygen and remov¬ing waste. Fatigue sets in quickly at that point, and work must be stopped or substantially reduced.
The second effect of exercise is production of heat. The body dissipates some heat by breath¬ing but most of it by sweating: The circulatory system increases blood flow to the skin, and the heat is lost by radiation and evaporation of sweat. Teachers need to be conscious of this process, particularly during hot and dry weather, when excessive sweating and evaporation may produce a loss in total body fluid. This can result in dehydra¬tion. Fluid lost should be replaced by regular water intake during heavy exercise In hot and dry weather. People of all ages are susceptible to dehydration. Children should always be permitted to drink as much water as they want to during and after exer¬cise. Water is as good a fluid replacement as any of the advertised commercial products. The USDA warns that children do not drink enough water and should be encouraged to drink water regardless of whether they are exercising, so encouraging children to drink water meets the demands of exercise and a more general nutritional need.
Children and adults handle heat and oxygen pro¬duction differently during exercise and physical activity. Children have higher resting heart rates than adults; this means that at rest children's hearts are working harder than adult's hearts. For example, a 6-year-old boy has a resting heart rate of 86 beats per minute (a girl's at the same age would be 88); by age 13, his resting heart rate would be 66 (hers would be 70). The maximum heart rate for a 6-year¬old is 215, as compared with 201 for a 13-year-old. The easiest way to estimate heart rate is to gently touch your fingers to the carotid artery and count the beats for 10 seconds, then multiply by 6. The carotid artery can be located by placing the fingers next to the Adam's apple (figure 6.2).
Blood pressure increases steadily during child¬hood and adolescence. Systolic pressure, the maximum pressure immediately after a heart beat, increases from 108 to 115 millimeters Hg during childhood and adolescence in boys, and in girls from 101 to 111 millimeters Hg (Hg is the symbol for the element mercury as read on the gauge). Diastolic pressure, the minimum pressure just before a heart beat, goes from 72 to 82 millime¬ters Hg in boys and 65 to 75 millimeters Hg in girls.
Respiration volume increases directly in relation to the intensity of exercise, but only about 50 to 60 percent of maximum aerobic power or maximum oxygen uptake (VO2max). Maximum aerobic power, maximum oxygen uptake, and VO2max are terms used to describe the upper limit of the cardio respiratory system in its ability to deliver oxygen to the body during exercise. At this point, respira¬tion increases very rapidly. The change from steady to rapid increase in respiration has been called the anaerobic threshold. The anaerobic threshold is the point at which the body can no longer keep up with the oxygen demands or the waste build-up in the muscles. The muscles are working without adequate oxygen, and in this state fatigue sets in very rapidly. Respiration response is the same for girls and boys. As children exer¬cise, respiration rate can provide information about level of fatigue. For example, a child who can talk easily while jogging is probably breath¬ing steadily; when respiration interferes with talk¬ing, the child is moving toward fatigue.
Anaerobic power, the ability to work without oxygen, is also lower in children than adults. This is because children have less of an important en¬zyme (phosophofructokinase or PFK) in their muscles; this enzyme allows the muscles to work without oxygen. Children will produce more PFK after puberty. Anaerobic power is important in activities such as sprinting.
Children also have a lower hemoglobin concen¬tration in the blood than adults. Since hemoglo¬bin is the part of blood that carries oxygen to the working muscles (e.g., in the heart and legs), chil¬dren transport less oxygen per unit of blood than adults. This means that children can do less work than adults. Hemoglobin content in the blood in¬creases at puberty; however, the increase is not as great in women as it is in men.
Children become more fit as a result of fitness training. The responses to training tend to be lower in children for several reasons:
- Children tend to be more fit at the onset, so training results in less improvement.
- Children have higher resting and maximum heart rates, which limits the intensity of train¬ing (.7 x maximum heart rate = training heart rate).
- Children have less hemoglobin, which limits maximal oxygen uptake.
Exercise training produces three benefits for children and adults. First, hearts become stronger as a result of training as stroke volume (the amount of blood the heart can pump in one beat) increases. Second, more capillaries develop as a result of training, which provides a better supply of blood to the heart and working muscles. Third, better extraction of oxygen from the blood leads to improved enzymatic reactions. Recall that in order to benefit from training, children must ex¬ercise 3 days per week for at least 20 minutes per day for 10 or more weeks at the training heart rate. Training or target heart rates for various age groups are presented in table 6.2.
The relationship between the type of cardiovas¬cular (aerobic fitness exercise) used for training and the type of testing used is critical. A child who has trained regularly as a swimmer will have trained cardiovascular endurance, but if that child is tested using the mile run, the benefits may not show up in the test results. There are two reasons for this: First, the muscles used- for swimming (arms) and running (legs) are different, so muscle endurance may be low in the legs and detract from the child's performance. Second, the knowledge of how to pace for the mile run is critical and learned through practice. Failure to pace carefully is one reason many children do poorly on the mile run test. You may remember a classmate running full speed for the first part of the mile run, then stopping or at least slowing considerably for the rest of tile mile. The object of pacing in the mile run is to maintain a relatively constant speed with enough energy remaining to run faster at the end. Practice creates immediate improvements in test scores, which are not related to improved fitness.
Aerobic fitness tests fall into two categories: norm referenced and criterion referenced. Norm¬ referenced tests are based on the normal (bell¬ shaped) curve and compare one person to the group. Criterion-referenced tests use a standard and generally place people into two groups (pass and fail, or master and non master). Early fitness tests were norm referenced and used the levels of the best 5 to 15 percent as criteria for an award. Recent tests tend to be criterion referenced, with the criterion selected based on predicting health risk. The concept is that a student who is 10 years old and can run the mile in 9 minutes and 48 sec¬onds or less will have less health risk than a stu¬dent who runs the mile in 9 minutes and 49 sec¬onds or more. Unfortunately, the various tests use different standards for passing (Morrow, Jackson, Disch, and Mood 2000). For example, a 9-year-old boy would have to run the mile at different speeds to pass the various tests: FITNESSGRAM (12 min), Physical Best (10:30 min), President's National (8:31 min), and Presidential Tests (<10 min), re¬spectively. This is confusing and leads to contro¬versy about the level of fitness of youth in our country (Blair 1992). Further, there are gender dif¬ferences at each age for all tests, beginning at G years of age. The times for girls are 48 seconds or more greater (meaning that girls run more slowly and still pass) than boys at each age for each test (Wilkinson,Williamson, and Rozsdilsky 1996).
Careful consideration needs to be given to test selection, use, and interpretation. If we maintain separate, lower standards, the message we send to girls as young as G is this: Is girls' health less important than boys' health? Is there a biological reason to expect girls to perform more poorly when compared with boys? The answer to these questions is no. Prior to puberty, boys and girls are similar in ability, and their performance should be similar as should our expectations. The pass¬ing rates on the four tests are very different: FfTNESSGf2AM (84%), Physical Best (51 or 52%,), President's National (G3 or G5%), and Presidential Tests (21%), respectively (the passing percentage for boys is presented first; the passing percent¬age for girls is shown second, where there are dif¬ferences). By selecting the test, a teacher can ma¬nipulate the passing rate for all children. If we want to demonstrate that most of our students are fit, we should use the FITNESSGRAM. However, if we want to demonstrate a need for fitness, we should use the Presidential Test. Interpreting test results for students, parents, and administration must be done in terms of the test characteristics and the purpose of testing. Often, it is best on any test to compare scores for a particular child rather than to compare scores between children or to test cri¬teria alone. In this way, maintenance or improve¬ment, rather than awards and comparisons to highly variable standards, will be the focus of the discussion.
We must take care in the use of fitness training and testing, since there is no evidence that being fit or training for fitness actually "carries over" to adult physical activity. Tracking is a term used to describe whether a behavior or characteristic re¬mains constant across time. Unfortunately, no re¬lationship has been demonstrated between physi¬cal fitness as a child and adult fitness or activity (Bouchard, Shepard, and Stephens 1994). Further, school programs that train for fitness in children have had little success in maintaining fitness (or activity) levels once the program ended. There is little carry-over from during-school programs to out-of-school activity. Clearly, there are many chal¬lenges when planning and implementing a fitness program. The fact that there are challenges does not suggest that fitness is not important or valu¬able. However, the role of fitness and fitness test¬ing in physical education must be kept in perspec¬tive. The goal is maintaining good long-term health and providing a challenge for those students in¬terested in taking physical activity to the next level.

Physical Fitness of Children

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In 1956, European children performed better on fitness tests than did U.S. children; as a result, youth fitness testing was established by President Eisenhower (Park 1988). At the same time, the Soviet Union was rapidly developing its space program, so the concern about physical fitness doubled as the United States started to train as¬tronauts. Presidents Kennedy and Johnson con¬tinued to support the fitness movement, which eventually became the President's Council on Physical Fitness and Sport. Your parents may re¬member taking the President's Youth Fitness Test; some of you may have taken a more recent ver¬sion called the Presidential Test. Early youth fitness tests did not require or even suggest how to train children to do, well on the test. Often the test was given in the fall and spring and forgotten in between. Depending on the year, only the top 5 to 15 percent of the students could earn an award. This meant that many children who took the test had a failing experience. Further, the test included items that had nothing to do with fitness (e.g., throwing a softball).
Several other fitness tests have emerged to com¬pete with the Presidential Test; among them were FITNESSGRAM and American Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recreation and Dance (AAPHERD) Health Related Fitness Test. The Physical Best Program was developed by AAHPERD during the 1980s. This program has several levels of awards and suggested activities to train for fit¬ness during the year. Recently, FITNESSGRAM has included a computer program to track physical activity. (FITNESSGRAM and AC"I'IVITYGRAM are available from Human Kinetics Publishers and the Cooper Institute of Aerobics Research.) The changes in fitness testing reflect a change in fit¬ness philosophy during the 1990s. That is, physi¬cally active lifestyles are for everyone and provide the most benefit to health, whereas physical fit¬ness is for some people and provides additional benefits with small additional risks.
The American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM 1995) describes three components of physical fit¬ness: cardiovascular endurance, body composi¬tion, and musculoskeletal health (which includes flexibility, muscle strength, and endurance). The most documented benefit from fitness is that from cardiovascular fitness because it reduces the risk of cardiovascular disease. Body composition ¬specifically, maintaining a healthy body weight and healthy percentage of body fat-also contributes to reduced risk of cardiovascular disease, adult onset diabetes, and cancer. Flexibility, muscle strength, and endurance reduce lower back pain and increase posture, functional capacity, and the ability to conduct daily activities.
The cardiovascular fitness, flexibility, muscle strength, and endurance components of fitness translate directly into fitness tests and training activities (table 6.1). Body composition does not have specific activities but is positively influenced by the activities training the other components.
Three terms are used to describe fitness train¬ing, which can be remembered using the acronym FIT :
- Frequency-the number of training sessions per week
- Intensity-the percent of maximum for the training
- Time-the amount training in minutes or rep¬etitions, also called duration
To meet the minimum for aerobic training (car¬diovascular fitness), you must exercise (swim, jog, cycle) three days per week, for 20 minutes at your training heart rate. This is calculated by subtract¬ing your age from 220 and multiplying the result by .7. The most familiar training activities for muscle strength and endurance are sit ups or crunches, push-ups, chin-ups, and pull-ups, Weight training also contributes to muscle strength and endurance. Muscle strength and endurance train¬ing also require a frequency of three days per week. Muscle strength is the maximum amount of force a muscle can produce at one time. To train strength, the intensity is usually high (close to the maximum) and the time (repetitions) is low. Muscle endurance activities are low intensity (50 to 70 percent of maximum) and high time (three sets of 10 repetitions or more). Some activities are considered muscle endurance for one person and muscle strength for another. For example, a per¬son who can do 10 chin-ups is training muscle endurance, whereas the student who cannot quite do one chin-up is working on muscle strength. Flexibility, defined as the range of motion in a joint, is increased by low-intensity stretching with many repetitions, done three or more days per week. As you can see, one issue complicating physical fitness in elementary schools is that many programs do not allow enough time for physical education (e.g., days per week and time per day) to train fitness in children. Clearly, to do so, pro¬grams would need three days per week for approxi¬mately an hour each day to meet minimum fitness criteria.
One of the challenges facing teachers and schools is to help children develop the compe¬tence (e.g., skill and knowledge) and initiative to be responsible for their own fitness, beginning in childhood. The challenge results from two factors. First, time is needed to train for fitness. Typically, physical education-whether taught by a class¬room teacher or by a specialist-is not offered daily. Although daily physical education might be ideal, it is not common. Even with daily physical education, the time demand of physical fitness training reduces the time available for skill acqui¬sition. Second, the optimal situation is for children to assume responsibility for their own fitness. Adults must decide to train and to continue to train for fitness, and children can begin to learn this habit, with the goal of lifelong fitness becoming a self-responsibility. Some individuals will choose to be active rather than fit. Skill is a predictor of physically active lifestyles, though, so allocating physical education time to skill development is important. How do teachers decide how much time to allocate? This will be partially a personal choice; however, all children need to understand how to train for fitness and need to have a variety of exercises designed for them that will meet fit¬ness goals. Further, all children need skill to par¬ticipate in a variety of physical activities that can contribute to a physically active lifestyle. The re¬lationship among activity level, health risk, and fitness compared with physically active is dem¬onstrated in the physical activity continuum in fig¬ure 6.1.
Being physically active is a goal for everyone, whereas physical fitness is a goal for some. To provide safe and effective programs, teachers need to understand some of the differences in the ways in which children and adults experience ex¬ercise. Just as children grow, mature. and have skills that evolve with time and practice, their bodies change in other ways that cannot be di¬rectly observed.

Recreational Sport Program Planning

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One of the most important functions of the recreational sports manager is the continuous planning and evaluation of the program to see if its goals are being met. The program must also be evaluated in terms of budget and numbers of persons participating. In today's competitive climate a program must be cost effective or it faces the probability of being phased out.

Evaluation is a crucial component of the planning process of any well-managed organization. The planning process involves a number of steps or phases that can be modified for most management circumstances. The following planning process phases are offered for consideration:

A mission or vision of accomplishment. This is a statement of what should be accomplished and how this fits into the conceptual and philosophical view of the organization.
Overview of the situation. A managerial analysis of the conditions and complexities of the task that will serve as a guide to set realistic goals is necessary.

Specification of goals. Goals must be realistic, reasonable, challenging, achievable, and quantifiable when possible (e.g., to increase the number of students with disabilities in the program from 16 to 50 participants). Goals may be long range, inter-mediate, or short term in nature. Growth, profitability, client satisfaction, retention, and social awareness are examples of areas in which organizational goals might be established.

Identification of constraints. A description of the conditions and barriers that may hinder goal attainment, including alternative pathways toward goal attainment, should be outlined. Constraints may be human, technical, environmental, economic, or sociopolitical.

Identification of resources. Closely Linked to the development of any plan of action is the establishment of criteria for information gathering to assist in the generation of sound ideas. Research, consultants', and student and community input is vital to this phase.

The plan. For any plan to be effective, the manager needs to involve all the workers (human resources) who are necessary for its implementation. Clearly defined tasks and rules, job descriptions and expectations, how the parts relate to the whole timetables, cost, individual feelings, and direct input are vital to "The Plan.".

Evaluation. Evaluation techniques will differ but generally should include (1) definition of the program goals, (2) data collection (e.g., number of participants, number of teams, games played), (3) an appraisal of players, coaches, officials, game scores, facility utilization, etc., (4) recommendations from internal and external review groups, (5) consultant visitation, and (6) participant opinion and rating forms concerning the overall program.

On completion of the evaluation phase of the planning process, the recreational sports director and the program staff may want to revise, modify, or institute new programs to further meet the cognitive, psychomotor, sosiocultural, and affective demands of the population being served. The realization of the need for careful and prudent planning, as well as the total involvement of all recreational sport program participants, leads to sustained and successful programs

Recreational Sport Considerations

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Recreational sport has the potential to make significant contributions to all levels of education (K-12 and college and university), as well as to the private and public sectors. In light of recent legislation, such as Title IX and PL 94-142, special sensitivity is war-ranted and effort mandated to include opportunities for women and persons with varying disabilities, as well as other diverse populations. Recreational sports has Ied the way, concerning opportunity in regard to core creational activities, aid now recreational sports' overall objectives must be further extended. Objectives should include provisions for (1) opportunities for both sexes, as well as minorities and persons with disabilities (in the least restrictive environment) to participate in whole some play experiences, (2) cooperative experience through physical activity for all in order to enhance self-esteem and develop interdependence, (3) participants to enjoy themselves, develop friendships, improve person skills, and gin mutual respect through both traditional and new activities, (4) participants to gain the skills, information, and the support network needed for spending leisure hours constructively in physical pursuits.

The goal of having persons with disabilities participate in the least restrictive environment and to join the regular recreational sport program is challenging, to say the least. Programs such as "Special Friends" and "Unified Sports" (a program instituted by Special Olympics International) should also be included. Special populations' participation in sports days, play days, and invitational days, which have long been traditional extramural recreational sports activities endorsed by the American Alliance of Health, Physical Education, Recreation and Dance and the National Association of Girls and Women in Sport, should also be encouraged.
At the college and university level, recreational sport managers should not forget the graduate student (many older students arc now returning to school), faculty and staff, and those individuals' families and significant others. Research suggests that an attractive recreational sport program assists in retaining and recruiting both faculty and students. Inclusion of significant others will contribute to sustained participation in physical activity throughout the lifespan. Certainly these are worthy considerations for all managers of both physical education and recreational sport to not only address, but to actively promote

Competttive Structuring

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There are several different ways of structuring competition within most recreational sports programs. Three of the most common are leagues. tournaments, and meets. These modes of structuring take many forms, with league play popular in the domain of team sports, elimination tournaments used to a great extent after culmination of league play, and meets held to recognize the closure of a season or year of sports activity.

Various types of tournament competition have been employed extensively in recreational sports; descriptions of some competitive tournament structures will be included here.

The round robin tournament is probably one of the most widely used and one of the best types of competitive structures, because it allows for maximal play. It is frequently used in leagues, where it works best with no more than eight teams. Each team plays every other team at least once during the tournament Each team continues to play to the completion of the tournament, and the winner is the one who has the highest percentage, based on wins and losses at the end of scheduled play (Figure 4-2, A).

The single or straight elimination tournament is set up so that one defeat eliminates a player or team (Figure 4-2, B and C) This structure does not allow for maximal play the winners continue to play, but the losers drop out. A team or individual is automatically out when it or he or she loses. However, this is the most economical form of organization from the standpoint of time in determining the winning player or team. Usually a drawing for positions takes place, with provisions for seeding the better players or teams on the basis of past performance. Such seeding provides more intense competition as the tournament moves toward the finals. Under such a structure, byes are awarded in the first round of play whenever the number of entrants does not fall into units to the power of two (i.e., 2, 4, 8, 16. 32, 64, etc.). The number of byes is determined by subtracting the number of entrants from the next higher power of two. Figure 4-2, B has 13 entrants (16-13 = 3 byes). Although such a tournament is a time saver, it possesses a flaw because it does not adequately select the second and third-place winners. The second or third best player may meet the best player, and eventual winner, in the first round of play, which often dampens the enthusiasm for the remaining games or matches in the tournament. An-other weakness is that the majority of participants play only once or twice in the tournament.

The double elimination tournament does not have some of the weaknesses of the single elimination, because it is necessary for a team or individual to lose twice before being eliminated. This is also characteristic of various types of consolation elimination tournaments that permit the player or team to play more than once.

In some consolation tournaments all players who lose in the first round and those who, because they received a bye, did not lose until the second round get to play again to determine a consolation winner. In other similar tournaments any player or team who loses once, regardless of the round in which the loss occurs, is allowed to play again. There are also other tournaments, such as the Mueller-Anderson Playback, in which the competitors continue to play until all places of finish have been determined in the tournament (see Figure 4-3, C) and the Bagnall-Wild Elimination Tournament (Figure 4-3, D), which is a form of single elimination tournament that focuses on more accurately selecting the second- and third-place finishers. The theory is that it is possible for the second or third best player to be eliminated in an early round by the eventual winner. In the Bagnall-Wild, the players eliminated by each finalist participate in separate consolation tournaments.

The ladder tournament (Figure 4-3, E) adapts well to individual competition. Here the contestants arc arranged in ladder, or vertical, formation, with rankings established arbitrarily or on the basis of previous performance. Each contestant may challenge the one directly above or in some cases two above, and if he or she wins, the names change place on the ladder. When a contestant loses to a challenger from below, he or she may not immediately re challenge the winner, but must accept another challenge from below. This is a continuous type of tournament that does not eliminate any participants. However, it is not ideal, because it may drag and interest may wane.

The pyramid tournament is similar to the ladder variety (Figure 4-4). Here, instead of having one name on a rung or step, several names arc on the lower steps, gradually pyramiding to the top-ranking individual. A player may challenge anyone in the same horizontal row, and then the winner may challenge anyone in the row above.

The spider web tournament takes its name from the bracket design, which is the shape of a spider's web (Figure 4-5). The championship position is at the center of the web. The bracket consists of five (or any other selected number) lines drawn radially from the center, and the participants' names arc placed on concentric lines crossing these radial lines. Challenges may be made by persons on any concerntric line to any person on the next line closer to the center. A player must defeat someone on his or her own level after losing a challenge in the immediate inner tier of the web. This tournament provides more opportunity for competitive activity.

The type of tournament structure adopted should be the one deemed best for the unit, group, activity, or local interests. The goal should be maximal participation within facility and time constraints. Tournaments encourage participant interest and enthusiasm and are an important part of the recreational sport experience.

Recreational Sport Programs in the High School

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At the senior high level, recreational sports should continue the pattern that has been laid down at the junior high or middle school. Recreational sport activities should be varied and should focus on skill development, fun, building positive self-images, co-operation, and friendly competition, as well as set-ting a positive tone for lifetime participation. At this level, activities can be conducted not only at noon, during prescribed activity hours during the day, and in the afternoon, but also in the evenings. The activities should cut across age, grade, and gender barriers, although wholesome rivalries by grade still seem to permeate the high school environs.

Personnel for the conduct of recreational sport programs should be well-trained professionals. Sound, creative leadership is needed if the programs are to prosper. Each school should be concerned with developing a plan in which proper supervision and guidance are available for after school hours. Recreational sport clubs may be initiated to help train students to take an active role in the planning and conduct of the high school program. Qualified officials arc also a necessity to ensure safe, equal, and wholesome competition. Facilities, equipment, and supplies should be apportioned equitably for the entire recreational sport program. No part of any group or any program should monopolize facilities and equipment, and a cooperative effort of the school and community is crucial to having a first-class high school recreational sport program.

Recreational Sports in Colleges and Universities
College and university recreational sport programs offer an ideal setting for both men and women to participate in a wide range of physical activity." These activities range from individualized activity such as weight training to a full complement of team and individual sports, from co recreational endeavor to carnival or special event days and from aerobic dance to outdoor pursuit. The recreational sports center on a college or university campus is a place to rather, work out, and socialize, and should offer a wide range of physical activity for the entire university community. It is a place that can and should being a "sense of community" to the institution.

At this level, the fastest growing area of recreational sport programming endeavor is in sport clubs. These organizations provide participants with opportunities for high-level competition in many different activities. The University of Minnesota offers a wide range of opportunities that may be available for the college sport club participant (Table 4-I ). Many club sports ranging from skiing to rugby and from rowing to soccer sponsor national championship competitions.

Sport clubs, however, are only one component of the college and university recreational sport program. Intramurals (e.g., Competitive A, B, and C; recreational and core creational leagues), extramural, open recreation (e.g., fitness, aerobics, weight training, running), faculty and staff leagues, and even summer sport camps are integral parts of the contemporary college recreational sports scene. Activities for men, women, co recreational sport, graduated students, staff and faculty, family and guest participation. fitness assessments and counseling, and instructional activities are all delicately woven into the collegiate recreational sports endeavor (Table 4-2): Safety, health status, eligibility, and responsibility for the conduct of the program and funding and facilities continue to be the salient is-sues to be addressed by sound management.

At many colleges and universities, student involvement in the management process is integral and ranges from the formulation of recreational sport constitutions to officiating. Many colleges still structure much of their recreational sport programming around units such as residence halls and dormitories, the Greek system (fraternities and sororities), or academic departments, although the traditional practice of competitions between teams that are arbitrarily formed at registration under "labels" ranging from the Nerds to MASH still seem to permeate "reports" registration.

Recreational Sport Programs in Other Organizations
Recreational sport programs play a major role in many organization outside the educational domain. For example, in the corporate setting there are many recreational sport langue for employees in a variety of sports and other physical activities. In many instances softball diamonds, basketball and volleyball courts, jogging areas, platform and lawn tennis courts, swimming pools, fitness centers, and even golf courses are provided. In some instances, employees are compensated for joining nearby public-sector fitness clubs, and in other situations, businesses subcontract their recreational sport commitment to a private sector enterprise. Employees usually take an active role in these programs, which contribute much to their morale, health, and physical and mental well being; research attests to the increased work productivity and reduction of absenteeism.

Recreational sport programs may also he found in YMCA’s, Boys' Clubs, community centers, park and recreation districts, church organizations, military installations, and other youth and adult serving agencies. The NCAA and many sports federations such as those of golf and tennis are also beginning to sponsor inter-city youth programs. Recreational sports represent an important part of many organizations curricular and educational offerings.
The same types of' formats for structuring multi-dimensional and creative physical activity and sport competition employed in schools and colleges arc used in these non-school organizations.

Recreational Sport Programs in the Elementary School

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The junior high and middle schools provide a setting where many students develop a keen interest in sport. This is a time of limitless energy, physiological change, and immense psychosocial challenge, A full concentration of challenging recreational sport activities should be made available for all those who are not involved in seasonal interscholastic competition. In fact, many professional groups favor recreational sport programs at this level and are opposed to high degrees or competition. Activities conducted after school (sec the box on p. 107) should provide the student with the opportunity to develop skills, gain self-confidence, have fun, socialize, gain recognition, develop self-worth, and break down cliques as well as racial and gender stereotypes.

The program should be well structured, properly supervised and managed by the school's physical education teachers, and "student-run." Challenges by homeroom, grade, neighborhood, academic interest area, or school club are often used as motivators for maximal student participation. Weekends, lunch hours, and special event days featuring faculty challenges should not be overlooked as a means of build-ing school pride, as well as healthful, whole some, physically active lifestyles which, it is hoped, will carry over into adulthood. The program should also be "open" to all students with any type of special need regardless of disability or physical limitation, and provision should be made for "inclusion versus exclusion."

Policies And Procedures For Organization and Management

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A list of policies and procedures governing the various features of the program should be in writing and well publicized, perhaps in handbook form. The National Intramural-Recreational Sports Association (NIRSA) serves as an excellent resource for this undertaking.

Policies and procedures for recreational sports should be developed in at least the following areas student involvement in program organization and management, health and welfare of all participants, activities that meet the interests and needs of the participants, officiating, protests, eligibility standards, fees, forfeits, postponements, point systems, and awards. Policies and procedures concerning user groups, guest fees, rental structure, noise, food consumption, key control, equipment control, and facility use should also be on record. The health and safety of the participants must be a top priority, and policies concerning emergency procedure, should be well publicized.

MANAGEMENT CONCERNS IN K-12 SCHOOLS
The management of recreational sports at the elementary, junior high or middle, and secondary school levels presents some problems that are peculiar to these programs. Whereas in many colleges and universities students live in dormitories and on campus, this is not the case in K-12 systems. Sonic students have to work after school or catch a bus to take them home and cannot stay after school to participate in recreational sports, whereas college students more often are able to participate because they are not faced with such a problem, at least in institutions with dormitory living. Also, many times the parents of elementary, junior high or middle, and secondary school students do not see the value of recreational sports and so do not encourage their children to participate after school. College students, on the other hand, make their own decisions in most cases. Another problem faced by managers of K-12 recreational programs is the lack of facilities. Most schools have limited gymnasium and out-door space. Varsity sports are often given priority in the use of these facilities, which causes a hardship on the recreational sports program. The question of financial and human resource support also exists in many schools.

In light of these problems managers of school recreational sport programs need to be creative "hen trying to initiate such programs. Some schools, for example, use community parks and centers, YWCA swimming pools, and Boys' Clubs to provide facilities that meet the programmatic needs of their students.'

MANAGEMENT CONCERNS FOR COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES
Recreational sport has grown so large on the college campus that it presents a different pattern of concerns and challenges than that of the school setting. It is estimated that 40% to 8096 of most college students participate in recreational sports. Despite this increase in participation, finances remain a prime concern. Most programs' primary sources of revenue are institutional funds and student fees. A trend in decrease of institutional funding has challenged many programs to create alternative sources of funding (e.g., opening facilities to the public, providing instructional classes, operating sport camps).

Facility development, however, remains alive and well-one just has to visit Central Michigan University, the University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Vanderbilt University, or the Universities of Minnesota, Illinois, or Arizona to mention a few that have in-vested in architectural showcase facilities. Further-more, with the development of new and refurbished facilities there are myriad opportunities for qualified and well-trained professionals to provide leadership in recreational sport management.

ORGANIZATIONAL CONSIDERATIONS
The organization of a recreational sports program involves selecting activities, scheduling, determining eligibility, establishing awards and point systems, maintaining records, planning health examinations, financing, and directing publicity and promotion.
Activities. The activities constituting the recreational sports program determine the amount of resulting participation. It is therefore important to select the most appropriate activities. The following are recommended management guidelines that will help in selecting activities.

Activities should be selected in accordance with the season of the year and local conditions and influences.
Activities should reflect the needs and interests of the students or the members of the organization. These may include faculty and staff.
Coeducational recreational activities and recreational activities for students with varying disabilities should be provided.
The activities included in the school physical education program should be coordinated with the activities included in the recreational spurts program, which could serve as a laboratory experience for physical education.
Many desirable activities require little special equipment and do not require long periods of training to get the participant in appropriate playing condition.
Consideration should be given to such recreational activities as field trips, dramatics, hiking, camping, bicycling, orienteering, and other out-door pursuit activities.
Activities should be selected with special attention to the ability and safety of the participant.

Management Personnel

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Many management personnel are needed if a recreational sports program is to be a success. Some key persons involved are the director, student leaders, student directors and unit managers, recreational sports council members, and officials.

The Director
Many larger schools, colleges, corporations, and other organizations have established the position of director of recreational sports. In some cases other titles arc used. The director is responsible for establishing programs, securing adequate funding, involving the community, and evaluating the success of the program. Some of the more specific duties of the director include planning programs; organizing tournaments and other forms of competition; supervising the maintenance of facilities, equipment, and supplies; attending and planning sports council meetings; interpreting the program to the member-ship, the management, and the public in general; supervising the program in action; preparing budget; and evaluating the worth of the program.

Place in management structure. The director or person in charge of recreational sports in an elementary, junior high, middle, or secondary school is usually responsible to the director of physical education or athletics. In some cases, not all of these various components are under the same department.

At small colleges the recreational sports department might also fall under the control of a director of physical education or athletics and in sonic in-stances a student activities director. These program administrators usually appoint one person to man-age the entire campus recreational sports program of which intramurals, extramural, and sports club activities are integral parts. In many cases partial responsibility for recreational sports activities is delegated to students themselves.

In larger colleges and universities, recreational sports departments maintain separate divisions, receiving consideration along with the physical education or athletic divisions concerning staff members, finances, facilities, equipment, supplies, and other departmental essentials. The department is usually headed by a director well schooled in physical education and sport or recreation management. Working with the director (when conditions warrant) should be assistant and associate directors, supervisors, student managers, and other staff members as needed, depending on the size of the organization. There should also be an adequate number of trained officials and support staff.

Student Leaders
Student involvement in all phases of education has been steadily increasing. Involvement in the management of recreational sports has been happening in high schools and on college campuses since the 1850s. Roles of student leaders may range from serving as board members to being managers, office assistants, and officials. For example, many colleges have "drop-in" centers where student supervisors are available to establish programs, reserve equipment, and arrange additional hours for the gymnasium or swimming pool. Some schools have student managers who also supervise recreational sports activities.

Student Directors and Unit Managers
In some school programs the director of recreation al sports appoints an upper-level student who has been involved with the program to be student director. This student director may have such responsibilities as contacting officials, working with managers, is-suing supplies, and scheduling.
Student unit managers have an important responsibility because they are in charge of a particular sport or activity. They usually work closely with the team captains and manage supplies and equipment, team rosters, and entry sheets, and notify teams of the time and date of contests, as well as clarifying eligibility rules.

Recreational Sports Council Members
An important feature of the overall management of a recreational sports program is a recreation sports council, which is usually an elected body with representatives from the participants, central ad-ministration, and recreational sports staff. The council is influential in establishing policy and practices for a broad recreational sports program. The council assists and advises the person in charge, as well as the staff numbers. In some cases it plays an important role in the decision-making process.

Councils usually consist of representatives from the various participating units who disseminate information to the participating teams or individual membership. The council also helps make decisions about program operation and serves as a sounding board for ways in which the program may be improved.

Officials
Excellent officials arc necessary for a quality recreational sports program. They should have special qualifications, including knowledge of the activity, the participants, the goals of the program, and the organization’s philosophy of competition. Some of the responsibilities of the managers of the recreational sports program are to find sources for competent officials and then to recruit, select, and train them so that they enhance the program. Some of the duties performed by officials arc to have game equipment read, before the contest, see that accurate score sheets are prepared, check for any safety hazards, prepare accident report if needed, and officiate the game or activity objectively and impartially. Some institutions put officials through training sessions, supervise them during the playing season, and evaluate their performance after the season is over. Whereas most colleges pay their officials, elementary and secondary schools usually do not have the budget to provide compensation. Many schools seek voluntary help from students, staff, parents, and community workers. At the same time it is recognized that these volunteers also need close supervision and should be offered some in-service training.

Relation To Basic Instructional and Highly Organized Athletic Programs

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Recreational sports activities and interscholastic and intercollegiate sports are integral phases of the total sport program in a school or college. This total sporting package includes the intramural and extra-mural programs, sport clubs, and varsity sport, as well as the basic instructional physical education program. Each makes an important contribution to the achievement of educational and physical education objectives. It is crucial to maintain a proper balance so that each program phase enhances and does not restrict the other.

The basic instructional program in physical education is viewed by many physical educators as the foundation for recreational and competitive sport programs. The instructional program includes teaching such fundamentals as skills, concepts, and strategies. Recreational sports programs provide opportunities for all students and others to employ these concepts, skills, and strategies in games and contests that are usually competitive. This part of the total Physical Activity and Sport Continuum is sometimes referred to as the laboratory where the individual has an opportunity to experiment and test what has been learned in the physical education program.

Whereas recreational sports are for everyone, varsity sports are usually for those individuals who are highly skilled in sport-specific activities. The intramural phase of the recreational sports program is conducted on an intra-institutional basis, whereas varsity sports and extramural are conducted on an inter-institutional basis.

Very little conflict should exist between these two phases of the sports program if the facilities, time, personnel, finance, and other factors arc apportioned according to the degree to which each phase achieves the desired outcome rather than the degree of public appeal and interest stimulated. One should not be designed as a training ground for the other. it should be possible for a person to move from one phase to the other, but this should be incidental rather than planned.

If conducted properly, each phase of the program can contribute to the other, and through an overall, well-balanced sports program the entire student body or all members of an organization will gain appreciation for sport and the great potential it has for improving physical, mental, psychosocial, and emotional growth.

The philosophical model illustrated the placement of recreational sports within the province of physical activity. This triangular model depicted interdependence and a building of skills from the basic instructional physical education level to the recreational sports level and, finally, to the level of varsity competition. This model conveyed the philosophy that instruction is basic to

the other programs and that recreational sports skills are essential to producing the high-level skills found in varsity play.

Recretional Sports Programs

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Objectives
The objectives of recreational sports programs are an indication of why such programs have expanded greatly throughout the country. These objectives are compatible with the overall objectives of physical education and also with those of education in general.
The objectives of the programs may be classified under four headings: (1) health, (2) skill, (3) psychosocial development, and (4) recreation.

Health
Recreational sports activities contribute to the physical, social, and emotional health of the individual. They contribute to physical health through participation in activities offering healthful exercise. Such characteristics as muscular strength, agility, flexibility, cardiovascular endurance, speed, and body control are developed. They contribute to psychosocial health through group participation and working toward achievement of group goals. Participation also contributes to emotional health by helping a person achieve self-confidence and improve his or her self-concept.

Skill. Recreational sports activities offer the opportunity for every individual to display and develop his or her skills in various physical education activities. Through specialization and voluntary participation they offer individuals the opportunity to excel and to experience the thrill of competition. It is generally agreed the an individual enjoys activities in which he or she has developed skill. Participation in recreational sports offers the opportunity to develop proficiency in group activities in which each person is grouped according to skill, thus providing for equality of competition, which helps guarantee greater success and enjoyment. These programs also enable many persons to spend leisure time profitably and happily.

Psychosocial development. Opportunities for psychosocial development are numerous in recreational sport activities. Through many social contacts, coeducational experiences, and playing on and against other teams, desirable qualities are developed. Individuals learn to subordinate their desires to the will of the group and to develop sportsmanship; they also learn fair play, courage, cooperation, group loyalty, social poise, and other desirable traits. Participation in such a program is voluntary, and people who desire to play under such conditions will do so by group codes of conduct. These experiences offer training for citizenship, adult living, and human relations.

Recreation.
Recreational sports programs help develop an interest in many sports and physical education activities; this interest carries over into adult living and provides the basis for many happy leisure hours. These programs also provide excellent recreational activities and support groups during school days, when idle moments have the potential to foster less than desirable behavior.

Reducing Inequalities in Pupils' Psychological Outcomes

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Several writers in the physical education domain have been concerned with the so, called self-falling prophecies during the teaching-learning porkers in P.E. Researchers have hypothesized that differences in initial teacher expectations towards subgroups of pupils, dependent upon such cues as gender, body type, or initial achievement levels, result if, differential teacher treatment of these subgroups. For example, communication patterns will vary. Instructors will give fewer opportunities-and less feedback, praise, and encouragement to low expectancy pupils as compared with high expectancy pupils. This, in turn, easily leads to differential opportunities for learning and development among pupils in P .E. When this happens, the negative type becomes closed and the self-fulfilling prophecy becomes realized-the P.E. teachers' initial differential expectations become fulfilled. P.E. teachers should make every effort to prevent suci; plebiscites. If not, teachers may unwittingly give rise to unequal psychological outcomes for subgroups of pupils in terms of motivation, affect and skill acquisition, attributions, future expectations for success, as well as inequalities regarding the development of pupils' self-perceptions.
How may teachers prevent the development of self-fulfilling prophecies and thus create more equal possibilities for all pupils to experience positive psychological outcomes from P.E. Empirical research shims that creating a mastery-oriented climate in P.E. would be helpful. For example, Martinek and Karper (19S4) and, more recently, Papaioannou (1995) examined differences in teacher-pupil interactions and treatment of high and low ability pupils in P.E. They found that teachers' behavior in favor of high achievers occurred more often in a motivational climate characterized as ego/performance oriented. In contrast, in a task-oriented motivational climate, teachers' behavior indicating positive expectations for low achievers was observed more frequently.
Why should a task-oriented motivational climate be of particular importance for reducing inequalities in psychological outcomes for sloops pupils' Papaioanrou (1995)proposed interesting explanation by arguing that a teacher's different behaviors Howard’s high and low achievers focuses pupils' attention on issues of ability rather than on how to master the task. Thus, a positive relationship should exist between an ego/ performance oriented motivational climate and teachers' differential treatment toward high and low achievers. When an ego/performance oriented climate prevails, ability is valued most in the class. In this case, only pupils with high normatif ability are rewarded. In contrast, when the P.E. motivational climate is predominantly task oriented, issues of normatif e ability irrelevant. Then, differential treatment of low and high achievers becomes irrelevant as well.
To sum up, research seems to support the view that the PE. context, though differential teacher expectations, may create unequal opportunities concerning psychological outcomes of pupil subgroups. Encouraging evidence shows, however, that be promoting a task-oriented motivational climate, such unintended inequalities and a negative P.E. hidden curriculum can be prevented. A task-oriented motivational class climate may more easily benefit all pupils' intrinsic motivation and involvement. This may be attributed to the fact that when a task-oriented climate prevails, equality in communication and interest for all pupils, independent of their achievement characteristics, would possibly dominate.

Empirical Evidence About the Perceived Motivational Climate

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Recently, researchers such as Papaioannou (1995) and Goudas and Biddle (19946) have focused on psychological outcomes in P .E. such as pupils' intrinsic motivation a rid anxiety. A particular interest of Their studies has been to examine whether these outcomes are being influenced by the interaction of the pupils' perceptions of the motivational climate and their perceived competence. The evidence is quite clear. The perceived motivational climate makes a difference with respect to motivation. A couple o: examples may illustrate this. Pupils' perceived competence in PE. seem, to be of minimal importance with respect to intrinsic motivator, when the motivational climate is perceived as highly task oriented. By contrast, when pupils perceive the motivational climate as ego/performance oriented, intrinsic motivation seems to decrease for pupils with low perceived motor/physical ability.
As concerns motivation for children high in perceived ability, the perceived motivational climate matters as well. Confronted with a secara in which pupils high in perceived ability were supposed to play or exercise with low achievers, those with high perceived ability were less intrinsically motivated when simultaneously. premiering the motivational climate as low in task orientation (Papaioannou, 1995). Thus, a task ¬oriented motivational climate may be considered useful not only for those who doubt their abilities. Pupils with a high sense of ability may benefit as well. This may be because a task-oriented motivational climate invites these pupils to focus on the learning activity, doing their best, and seeing the challenge of co-operation rather than on being demotivated by easily beating someone with less ability than themselves (see also the chapter be Lamont and Winnykamen).
Negative affective outcomes in terns of anxiety also seem influenced by the perceived gravitational climate (Papaioannou,1995). In particular, pupils who doubt their abilities in P.E. seem to worry most when they face high achievers in a P.E. climate perceived as low in task orientation.
The message so far seems elite clear. In order to promote positive motivational outcomes and reduce negative affective ones for pupils with high or low perceived ability in physical education, P.E. teachers should make sure that all pupils perceive the motivational climate as task oriented. As a in sequence, teachers may more easily come to strengthen their pupils' positive attitudes and their perceived usefulness towards physical education: A decrease of negative affective states, such as anxiety and insecurity, may be the psychological outcomes as well.
As stated in the introduction, psychological out memos PE. Also emprise self-perceptions of competence and self-esteem. However, in this part of the chapter, only a couple of studies will be explored that have explicitly taken advantage of an achievement goal approach when studying this outcome category. psychological outcomes pertaining to self-perceptions including perceived competence and self-esteem are more fully elaborated upon in the next main pa. t of this chapter (The Enhancement of Self-Esteem as an Outcome). Thus, the reader should consult that section for a more detailed inspection of outcomes elated to self-esteem.
Cury et al. (1996) conducted a recent achievement goal approach study that dealt with competence-specific psychological outcomes of P.E on young girls' participation in P.E: In this study, results showed that in terms of outcomes pertaining to perceived competence, the girls who benefited most from P.E. classes also perceived the motivational climate as task oriented. Moreover, the positive effect of the task-oriented motivational climate upon their sense of competence also positively influenced these girls' intrinsic motivational outcomes: In other words, why are intrinsic motivational outcomes in PE. influenced by a task-oriented motivational climate? The answer seers to be that pupils who perceive the motivational climate as task oriented more easily get opportunities to develop their abilities.
Marsh and Pcartk1988) also focused upon pupils' outcomes in P.E. in terms of perceived ability. They found that perceptions of physical ability were not enhanced for all pupils. Differences in motivational features of the two intervention programmers studied played a role. Pupils in the co¬operative fitness programmed (task-oriented climate) enhanced their perceived physical ability. In contrast, participation in the competitively oriented fitness programmed (ego/performance-oriented climate) lowered pupils' perceived physical abilities.
Using a similar experimental design, Lloyd and Fox (1992) examined the effect of different motivational climates in physical education on children's achievement goals and motivation: Female subjects were assigned to two modes of instruction (self- or externally referenced) in a six-week aerobic fitness program: :e. The selection procedure was based on the suburbs' initial score on a measure of dispositional ego-oriented achievement goal. The results showed that the group that focused on a mode of instruction reflecting a task-oriented climate produced higher levels of enjoyment and motivation to continue with aerobic activities. Furthermore, subjects initially high on an ego-oriented achievement goal reported lower scores on an ego achievement goal after participating in a mode of instruction set up to create a task-oriented climate. By contrast, pupils who initially had a low score on an ego achievement goal reported an increase in ego-oriented achievement goals after participating in a mode of instruction reflecting an ego/performance-oriented motivational climate.
Can pupils' motivational and affective outcomes be enhanced when they are taught soccer skills? A field experiment conducted by Treasure and Roberts (1995) focused on this. Pupils learned soccer skills under a task¬ oriented and an ego/performance-oriented climate, respectively. More positive psychological outcomes--stronger preference for challenging learning activities; more enjoyment, and less boredom-were reported by low perceived ability children in a task-oriented climate in comparison with low perceived ability children in the performance/ego-oriented climate.
Intrinsic motivational outcomes of physical education have also been examined. These studies looked at the i elation of different teaching methods on the impact of the motivational climate. These teaching methods included giving unequal: weight to allocating authority to the pupils and stimulating their sense of self-determination. Goudas, Biddle, and Underwood (reported in Goudas & Biddle, 1994a) conducted a field experiment in a natural physical education setting for this purpose. Stronger intrinsic motivation shown by higher enjoyment was found among pupils who were allowed to take part in determining the level of pace and difficult, of their own work.
For you as a P.E. teacher, these experimentally based findings are - ' important. Previous non-experiment research has suggested that the motivational climate may have a shaping effect uploads position. a achievement goals (i.e., Cury et a1.,1996). These experimental findings support this view. By definition, achievement goals are seen as dispositional immature and may be amenable to change. This implies that dispositions are sensitive to imitational cues that may suppress particular ways of thinking and acting characteristic of the particular achievement goal, thus leading pupils into a different state of involvement. Consequently, as a physical education teacher, you are able to design a curriculum that may reduce pupils' disposition to join RE. lessons holding an ego-oriented achievement goal.
The evidence presented is quite clear and encouraging from other pedagogical points of view as well. It suggests that a task-oriented . motivational climate, which also includes elements personal autonomy and sel-determinable in, is superior in developing intrinsic motivation, reducing fear of failure, and enhancing persistence. This collisions were strobe valid for all pupils; irrespective of how they perceive their own abilities.
Keep in mind that even though a (ask-oriented motivational climate is the main predictor of positive motivational outcomes, another type of climate can positively affect intricacy motivation, too. The combination of a task-oriented and ego/performance-oriented climate also seems to enhance intrinsic motivation intern so enjoyment, effort tempo acne, and perceived competence (Goudas & Biddle,1994b). Thus, intrinsic motivation may also be increased by creating situations in which pupils feel that superior ability is appreciated as well.
As a last point one might ask, 'What about the relative importance of d dispositional achievement goals and perception of the motivational climate with respect to affective and motivational outcomes?' Researchers have argued that for less-popular P.E. class activities (for example, gymnastics), the perception of the motivational climate is particularly important for intrinsic interest and intentions to perform the activities. By contrast, in learning activities with usually higher motivation (for example, ball games), pupils' dispositional achievement goals may be more influential (Biddle, Cury, Goudas, Sarrazin, Famose, & Durand, 1995).
To sum up, research strongly advises that to enhance motivational and affective outcomes in P.E., pedagogical efforts should enhance a task¬ oriented motivational climate. This climate increases intrinsic motivation, positive attitudes, and perceived usefulness of physical education and also reduces pupils' worries in the gym. In addition, a task-oriented climate would also develop more controllable and functional beliefs about the causes of success. An ego/performance-oriented motivational climate, by contrast, may counteract the development of pupils' sense of mastery and intrinsic interest. It could lead to negative affective outcomes, particularly if cues reinforcing task involvement are not made salient.

Empirical Evidence About Achievement Goals

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Studies have examined pupils' participation P.E relative to outmen’s. pertaining to their thoughts and actions during lessons. For example, researchers found that pupils differed significantly with respect to level of interest, attention, positive attitudes and use of adaptive learning strategies. The pupils' achievement goals influenced these outcomes. That is, pupils with a high task achievement goal reported more positive and adaptive thoughts and actions, such as higher levels of attention, less anxiety, and more stilling ness to persist in practice, as opposed to those holding an ego achievement goal. Pupils with a high task-oriented achievement goal also chose more challenging tasks, and they reported more positive attitudes towards class (Solmon & Bootie, 1993).
Other studies focused on outcomes pertaining to children's exercise induced feeling states following a competitively oriented running event in . the physical education setting. For example, Gatchopoulos, Biddle, and Fox (1996) found that the experiences of positive affective states such as revitalization and tranquility after a competitive run were more likely among highly task-oriented pupils. Such positive affective states were also experienced by those with a high o achievement goal but only in combination with a high perception of sport competence. Moreover, feelings of physical exhaustion where experienced only among those with a low task¬ oriented goal.
Thus, positive aff2ctive and cognitive outcomes in P.E. are apparently more easily eased by pupils with a motivational achievement goal that includes self-referenced criteria for success and competence. Positive motivational and affective outcomes for pupils in P.E. are important, because they may substantially affect the students learning and achievement in t this setting.
AS already mentioned. pupils who hold an ego-oriented achievement goal and also doubt their ability in P.E. should be particularly at risk for developing dysfunctional achievement behavior and experiencing negative motivational and affective outcomes. The chapter will now have a look at some empirical evidence dealing with the issue of whether an ego-oriented goal is maladaptive independent of pupils' perceptions of ability.
In a study conducted within the context of P.E. in a secondary comprehensive school, Goudas, Biddle, and For. (1994a) divided pupils’ into groups based on different combinations of scores on task-and ego-oriented achievement goals. The focus of the study was on the effects of physical fitness testing upon intrinsic motivational outcomes. They found the following. Pupils clearly varied in their scores on intrinsic motivation Variations in intrinsic motivation were related to specific combinations o scores on their dispositional achievement goals, their perceived success and their performance on the fitness test. Pupils with a high test performance and those who 4 ,successful reported laugher intrinsic motivation than their counterparts: lover importantly, pupils in the high task/low ego achievement goal group who performed below average on the test had significantly higher scores on intrinsic motivation (enjoyment/interest/ effort) in comparison with the high ego/low task group. This implies that high task/low ego pupils are able to maintain high intrinsic motivation even when their fitness test performances are rather weak
Taken together, the so results demonstrate that motivational and affective outcomes of P.E. lessons that include fitness testing depend upon pupils' dispositional motivational goal orientations. More specifically, teachers should be aware that pupils with a high task/low ego achievement goal may benefit tans from fitness testing in terms of intrinsic motivation. Accordingly, under fitness , test conditions, groups of pupils who are less able should benefit the most with respect to keeping a high degree of intrinsic motivation if P.E. teachers encourage them to utilize self-referenced criteria for their performances on such tests.
Research has also examined cognitive determinants of intrinsic motivational outcomes in soccer, netball, and gymnastics. For example, Goudas, Biddle, and Fox (1994b) conducted a study among pupils aged 12 to 14 years for this purpose. The determinants included achievement goals, perceived competence, and perceived, autonomy, whereas intrinsic motivational outcomes were measured in terms of enjoyment and invested effort. Intrinsic motivation significantly differed among pupils, and some pupils had very low intrinsic motivation.
What characterized these pupils' cognitions? First, their achievement goals were highly ego orients, and they perceived their competence as being low. Clearly, this stud), also attests the view that to enhance motivation for pupils with a sense of low confidence in P .E., work aimed at creating a task ¬oriented motivational climate should particularly important.
Second, this study also revealed that high intrinsic interest in PE. activities was related to perceived autonomy sherbet a sense of performing P.E. activities without any external rewards or contingencies is do incant. This supports Deci and Ryan's (1985) cognitive evaluation theory. Their theory maintains that the degree of autonomy people feel in their actions is an important determinant of intrinsic motivation.
The important role of high perceived autonomy was also revealed by additional results. These showed that the effect of perceived competence on intrinsic motivation was moderated by the level of perceived self ¬determination. In other words, to maintain intrinsic motivation, the importance of a sense of self-determination seems to be no less important `than high perceived competence.
To summarize, the findings explored in this part of the chapter are : important from a pedagogical point of view. The results point to several necessary factors that teachers have to take into account to develop both adaptive learning strategies and their students' intrinsic interest and positive affect towards physical education activities. Specifically, trying to promote a task-oriented motivational dim ate seems important. When trying to do so, however, installing criteria for success among the pupils that are self referenced may not be enough. Teachers should also make sure that pupils can choose from several activities in which to participate and that students feel they can take part without adverting td external regulations.
So far, the chapter has suggested several recommendations dealing with the promotion of positive motivational and affective outcomes of P.E. In particular, the authors have emphasized the positive motivational and affective implications of holding a task-oriented achievement goal: In addition, they have recommended that teachers should work towards a task-oriented motivational climate in their classes. Can you trust these recommendations? In order to answer this more adequately, the chapter will next explore us ether motivational and affective outcomes are in fact influenced be perceptions of the motivational climate and whether achievement goals are amenable to change.

The Features of a Task-Oriented Motivational Climate

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What features of a task-oriented motivational climate are so important they promote positive affective and motivational outcomes? First, a task-oriented climate seems to be characterized by teachers who are satisfied when the pupils learn new skills and improve. Second, in a task-cordierite climate, the PE. teacher also emphasizes that making Mistakes’ is an integral part of learning (see figure 4.2) (Ames, 1992; ,Papaioannou, I994). Third, a task-oriented motivational climate is also facilitated by presenting a variety of activities and tasks that are optimally challenging for pupils with different abilities. Fourth, teaching style alb matters. Teachers who invite pupils to solve movement problems P.E. classes and encourage them to focus on the learning task may facilitate task involvement. This approach to teaching may stimulate pupils to ask questions such as, how can I do this task?' As a consequence, pupils may more easily see that mastery, rather than being more able than other pupils, is equivalent to progressing and accomplishing tasks.
A task-oriented climate also seems to be comprised of perceptions o: teacher support and possible pupil involvement in decision making, thereby stimulating autonomy. Thus, a task-oriented motivational climate may be congruent with the concept of autonomy within cognitive evaluation theory (Deci & Ryan, 1985). This is important because perceived autonomy is regarded as a basic element of intrinsic motivation.
Support of autonomy seems to help develop a sense of self-determination in pupils. In particular, a sense of choice and volition seems to be integral to feeling self-determined. Thus, PE. teachers may develop a task-oriented climate leading to greater satisfaction and intrinsic interest by also providing support of autonomy among pupils, by minimizing pressure, and by acknowledging students' feelings and perspectives.
After this exploration of the characteristics of achievement goals and different motivational climates, more evidence is needed about the factual role of these constructs as regards psychological outcomes of P.E. The chapter will now review what some of the research says.

The Role of the Perceived Motivational Climate

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According to achievement goal theory, situational factors such as the motivational climate play a substantial role in the activation of pupils' ¬achievement goals (Amps, 1.992). As such, achievement goal theory emphasizes the role of both personal (goals) and situational characteristics (climate) in affecting motivational and affective outcomes (Ommundsen, Roberts, & Kavussanu,l998). Pupils' perception of the motivational climate is important because of the increased probability of influencing the state of motivational involvement (ego or task oriented) if changes within the climate take place. This particular aspect will be considered in more detail later. In a similar manner as with depositional achievement goals, the motivational climate influences whether achievement cognition., affective states, and behaviors should be characterized as adaptive or maladaptive. Thus, the motivational climate influences motivational and affective outcome in two ways. First, in the long run, a consistent and stable motivational climate will influence and thus characterize the individual's goal orientation (Cur), Biddle, Famese, Goudas, Sarrazin, &.Durand,1996). In this way, the motivational climate, if consistent over time, may indirectly influence pupils' motivational and affective outcomes in RE by influencing their achievement goals. This way of thinking about the effects of the motivational climate seems to represent the socialization element of the achievement goal theory.
Second, the pupils' interpretation or perception of environmental/ situational cues, rewards, and expectations in the PE class also directly encourages a particular involvement or goal state. The way pupils interpret situational characteristics and cues influences, the degree to which task or ego/performance oriented features of the motivational climate will be perceived as salient. Ames (1992) distinguished between competitive goal reward structures that foster interest in social comparison (ego/performance-oriented motivational climate) and individualized structures that reward improvement. The latter therefore encourages pupils to focus on the value of mastery, progress, improvement, and performance consistency overtime (task-oriented motivational-climate).
In fact, the saliency of the motivational climate created in particular achievement situations may be so strong as to override the effects of the pupils' dispositional achievement goals regarding the effects upon adaptive versus maladaptive achievement cognitions and behavior. This aspect will be considered in more detail later. The chapter will now explore the characteristics of pupils' perceptions of the situational context in P.E. by using a task oriented motivational climate as the example.

The Adoption of Pupils’ Achievement Goals: Developmental Aspects

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According to Nicholls (19b9), children pass through four distinct developmental stages on their way to attaining a mature or differentiated conception of ability. Without going into details about each of these stages, some main features should be mentioned. This developmental process takes place approximately from four to twelve years of age. At an early developmental stage, all children hold a predominantly task-oriented achievement goal in which they make use of an undifferentiated conception of ability. This implies that Young children view effort and ability as co varying. Put differently, for the Young ones, high ability means giving maximum effort. At an early developmental stage, therefore, Showing high effect is unconditionally viewed as something positive among children. In order to be predominantly ego oriented, however, pupils need to have reached a higher developmental stage in which they are cognitively capable of acquiring the differentiated view of ability. Having reached this developmental stage, pupils can now construe ability in a normative sense and in a capacity sense. To illustrate when students observe that they can handle a certain difficulty level more efficiently than others (that is, obtaining the same result with less effort), they understand that they possess more ability/stronger capacity than others. Having reached this developmental level, social comparison with fellow pupils takes on increased importance to them: Social comparison and reference norms now have the potential of-becoming a main criteria by which these students assess their own abilities¬
At this more advanced developmental stage, pupils distinguish the concepts of effort and ability. Being able means being better than others. They still believe that their capacity is enhanced by spending maximal effort. Nevertheless, these students now clearly view their ability as limited by their capacity and understand that high effort cannot compensate for lack of capacity.
To summarize, to adopt an ego-oriented achievement goal, pupils must have acquired a differentiated conception or mature understanding of ability. After having reached this stage, spending maximum effort may be more problematic. It might indicate low ability under conditions of low performance for pupils in a state of ego involvement. Researchers; therefore, have called this phenomenon effort-a double-edged sword.
Developing an ego-oriented achievement goal also requires that pupils can distinguish between other concepts: luck and chance versus skill and ability, and skill and ability versus task difficulty. First, when the concepts of chance and luck begin to separate from those of skill. and ability, children no longer think that performing tasks in which the outcome is determined by chance can be influenced by practice, effort, ability, or age. Distinguishing skill and ability from task difficulty requires students to comprehend that some tasks are more difficult than others based on how many pupils can successfully complete the task. For example, when children have became capable of differentiating the concepts of skill and ability from task difficulty failing a task at which many others succeed now implies low ability.
According to achievement goal theory, children are by. nature task oriented until they have developmentally progressed through these stages. Accordingly, in the early stages, all children are predominantly, adaptive in terms of achievement, behaviors, such as not giving up when facing failure or difficulties. Moreover, they seem to have a general sense of mastery and mainly expect to perf6rm positively in the future. Nicholls (1959) has investigated these developmental processes among children. He found that most children do not achieve a completely differentiated or mature conception of ability until approximately 12 years of age. The existence of these developmental stages has been successfully replicated in the physical domain.
Developmental phases such as these should not be regarded, however, as static Cognitive processes do not simply unfold in a more or less orderly way. Indeed, contexts factors such as the motivational climate may interact with developmentally based cognitions. This highlights the psychological role of the P.E. teacher in creating a positive teaching/ learning atmosphere.
As a consequence of the potentially negative contextual influence even at early class levels, P.E. lessons may, by inducing an ego/performance oriented climate, make pupils vulnerable to adopting tin ego-oriented state. Consequently, even pupils in the early grades may derive negative motivational and affective outcomes from P.E. Psychological outcomes and the role of the perceived motivational climate will be considered next.

The Interplay Inter play Between Achievement Goals and Perceptions of Ability

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According to achievement goal theory, from a motivational, affective, and learning standpoint, pupils in physical education should be in a state of predominant task involvement in this state, a person's criteria for determining his or her mastery and success are mainly personally controllable. How may success then become more personally controllable? Perceived ability in a normative or social-comparison sense becomes irrelevant when in a state of task involvement. Pupils holding a task¬ oriented achievement goal focus on mastering learning activities, progressing, and doing the activities, not on being better than others. In contrast, predominantly high ego/performance-oriented pupils are generally in much more difficult and less personally controllable situations. They continually need to demonstrate; ability and maintain the high perceptions of competence when ability is judged by comparisons. When they do accomplish this, however these students feel positive affect, have positive adaptive cognitions, and sustain motivational behaviors. Consequently, pupils with predominantly ego-oriented achievement goals may still engage in adaptive achievement behaviors and derive positive motivational and affective outcomes out of P.E. participation. This will occur as long as they perceive themselves as high in ability. By contrast, ego-involved pupils who doubt their abilities seem far more vulnerable to developing maladaptive achievement behaviors and experiencing negative motivational and affective outcomes. Remember that few pupils are capable of consistently being better than their classmates. Many reasons could cause a-performance to end up worse than those of other classmates in P.E. These-reasons include injury, having a bad "day, and reasons that often are beyond pupils' personal control. Accordingly, many pupils who hold a predominantly ego-oriented achievement goal run the risk of developing low perceived competence in a normative sense.
Pupils who hold a task-oriented achievement goal make use of an undifferentiated conception of ability; whereas those -in a predominant state of ego involvement utilize a differentiated conception of ability. Embedded in pupils' cognitive development are different developmental stages towards the attainment of a mature and differentiated conception of ability. Thus, in terms of motivational and affective outcomes, the interlay between different achievement goals and perceived ability becomes particularly important when pupils have reached the developmental stage of a mature and differentiated conception of ability. Such developmental stages are considered next.

Characteristics of Pupils' Achievement Goals

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Fundamental to achievement goal theory is the notion that when pupils are confronted with achievement situations, their goal is to demonstrate competence. Competence or ability, however, may be construed differently among pupils. Pupils adopt a personal theory of achievement in which dispositional achievement goals play a predominant role, Embedded in an ego-oriented dispositional achievement goal is the goal of demonstrating ability in terms of norm-referenced criteria (such as doing better, than or outperforming others). In this case, pupils are in a state of ego involvement. By contrast, if the goal is to demonstrate ability in terms of self-referenced criteria (such as improvement or just completing the task with maximum effort), then pupils have a task oriented dispositional achievement goal in this case, pupils are in a state of task involvement.
According to achievement goal theory, dispositional achievement goals are independent. Thus, pupils may be high or low on both goals as well as high on one and low on the other (any combination of the two is possible). Achievement goals are also related to the different ways pupils view the possibility of developing their abilities. A task-oriented achievement goals is associated with an incremental view in which ability is seen as an acquirable skill. In contrast, an ego-oriented achievement goal is associated with a view of ability as a natural gift and less under one's personal control (an entity,. view). The reader should, consult the chapter by Sarrazin and Famose for further elaboration of this issue as well as the concept of achievement goals.

The Achievement Goal Approach

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In the part of the chapter, you will first learn more about the essentials of pupils' achievement goals and their development. Second, the chapter will explore the contextual dimension dealing with pupils' perception of the motivational climate. Third, the chapter will deal with the motivational and affective outcomes of P.E. A selection of the empirical research investigating motivational and affective outcome's in P.E, the role of dispositional goals, and the perceived motivational climate upon these outcomes will be reviewed.
Psychological outcomes pertaining to self-esteem and social-moral reasoning and behavior will be presented separately from the achievement goal approach. This seems reasonable given that other theoretical models have been considered as the main theoretical underpinnings of these particular outcomes so far. However, when dealing with self-esteem and social-moral aspects, connections to the achievement goal perspective will be made in cases of relevance.

Motivational and Affective Outcomes

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The development of adaptive achievement motivation and positive affect in P.E. should be considered fundamental psychological outcomes of PE. These x-ill optimize your pupils' learning and help them to develop lifelong interests in physical activity. Research about achievement motivation-in academics as well as in physical education has recently been heavily influenced by the achievement goal approach (Nicholls,1989; Papaioannou, 1994). This approach may be of great value in understanding how positive motivational and affective outcomes maybe developed in P.E. This theoretical perspective focuses on-how pupils subjectively construct the meaning the attach to their achievement strivings in P.E. lesson. Pupils’ construction of personal meaning attached to their achievements becomes evident in different dispositional achievement goals.
According to achievement goal theory, pupils' achievement goals, developmental differences: and perception of the motivational climate in the P.E. lessons impacts how they cognitively and emotionally respond to and act in the PE. setting. For example, characteristics of the pupils' achievement goals and the perceived motivational climate may influence whether students invest increased effort when confronted with difficulties and whether they feel pleased with their P.E. class.
According to achievement goal theory, pupils of the same P.E. class who hold different achievement goals may experience their P.E. lessons quite differently. Second, pupils within different P.E. classes may experience their P.E. lessons quite differently due to, variations in their perception of the motivational climates.
Nicholas (1989) argues that dispositional achievement goals and the perceived motivational climate should be considered the immediate precursors of a variety of cognitive, motivational, and affective consequences. Positively stated, these consequences or responses more specifically include

Behaviors, including adaptive achievement-strategies such as high effort, persistence, commitment overtime, and optimal task choice like preference for challenge and social-moral behavior,
Cognitions, including functional attributions and beliefs about the causes of success. These cognitions involve high self-esteem, including a perception of high physical; motor ability; a sense of self ¬determination/autonomy, positive attitudes; perceiving that taking part in PE. reflects humanistic educational values; and, finally constructive social-moral reasoning; and
Affective states, such as satisfaction, enjoyment, revitalization, and tranquility
This chapter considers these consequences to be important -psychological outcomes work which physical educators should focus. Some of these psychological outcomes (such as preference for challenge and satisfaction) may comprise more immediate cognitions and feelings that may result from high quality teaching. Others, by contrast, such as self-esteem and social-moral behavior, represent more stable and long-term outcomes. Such outcomes are important in at least two ways. First, they may raise the psychological quality of the pupils' experience of physical education classes. Thus, they are valuable outcomes per se. Second, such outcomes may also be instrumental in developing long lasting motivation and interest in physical activity.

Psychological Outcomes: The Selection of a Focus

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This will consider outcomes such as motivation, achievement strategies, affect, self-perceptions, and social-moral reasoning and behavior. Why, these outcomes? Whereas some of them comprise basic elements of psychosocial health and development as described within the field of developmental psychology (Berk,1989), others have been forwarded as central components of curriculum goals for physical education (see the prologue of this textbook). In addition, sound theoretical models and empirical evidence have recently been made available regarding the role of P.E. in promoting these outcomes.
A focus on motivation, achievement strategies, affect, self-perceptions, and social-moral reasoning and behavior seems further justified because outcomes are important for at least two reasons. First, they seem educationally worthwhile as objectives in themselves. Second, several of these outcomes are prerequisites for achieving other important curriculum goals such as learning motor skills, improving fitness, and developing long-lasting interest in sport and physical activity (Dishman, Sallis, & Orenstein, 1985).
A good understanding of psychological outcomes in P.E. is facilitated by knowledge of their theoretical foundation. Such knowledge is important in order to understand what brings about these outcomes. Thus, each main part of this chapter first describes a summary of relevant psychological theory. Second, claimed or desired outcomes need to be clearly distinguished from those that can be supported by means of properly designed scientific investigations. Therefore, this chapter also includes results from some empirical studies. Finally, the authors derive practical implications for teaching in order to help you fulfill your curriculum goals when working towards psychosocial growth and development for your pupils.

Desired Versus Factual Outcomes

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The claimed outcomes of physical education may instead be seen as desired outcomes. Little evidence supports the view that when your pupils participate in physical education, taking part produces particular outcomes by itself. Instead, the teaching-learning process needs to be seen as an integrated one in which you as a teacher, the pupils, the subject matter, and the environment are in dynamic interaction. Quite different outcomes may result from this interaction, including not necessarily intended ones. Psychological outcomes are the result of good planning and reflected teaching. They are built upon knowledge of the teacher's role and pupils’ characteristics in the teaching-learning process as well as the psychological dimensions of this process. Pedagogical content knowledge is important as well but will not be considered because it is beyond the scope of this chapter.
Your background, socialization into teaching, as well as personal theories of action in the gym all influence curriculum content, your cognitions and behavior, and, thereby the teaching-learning process. Personal theories of action may be looked upon as belief systems that reflect your philosophical values of education. In turn, such values influence your curricular decisions about content and how it is taught in classrooms. For example, findings within the value orientation research in physical education suggest that teachers with different educational value priorities differ in determining their curricular coals and expectations for student learning (Ennis, Ross, & Zhu, 7992).
Your pupils' characteristics also influence the teaching-learning process. They may have different concepts of the subject matt2r,and their psychosocial characteristics may differ. Dissimilarities in background, socialization, and psychological development clearly result in differences in cognitions, knowledge, and experiences. These may act as a lens when interpreting incoming information in PE.
The characteristics of your pupil’s together with your psychological influence as a teacher form a frame. Work for the students' perceptions of instruction events. This frame work affects the way they construct meaning and accomplish patterns of interaction in your classes.
Recent theoretical developments in educational and sport psychology have been very affected by a social-cognitive approach. This approach has been appalled in order, to understand and predict the meaning pupils attach to their P.E. experience as well as the psychological outcomes of P.E. on the pupils. The social-cognitive approach focuses on pupils' perceptions and cognitions in P .E. classes and contextual/situational factors that influence pupils' perceptions- and cognitions. The social-cognitive approach as applied to the study of psychological outcomes of P.E. is illustrated in figure 4.1.
According to the social-cognitive approach, P.E. teaching and psychological outcomes do not have a direct link. Instead, teaching is seen as only an influence on pupils thinking. Social-cognitive research about motivation and learning has clearly shown that pupils' thinking or cognitions, in turn, influence their affect, motivational behavior, and skill acquisition in physical education (Lee, Landin, & Carter, I992) Pupils assign meanings to events in PE. These meanings influence, for example, students' choices concerning the ways they interact in the P.E. setting, such as whether they exert effort or persist when encountering difficulties. Thus active effort and involvement by the pupils are the critical links between the teacher's behavior and the psychological outcomes that pupils may derive out of RE. From this point of what the pupils do is more important than what the teachers do.
The social element of the social-cognitive approach is, however, clearly evident. The PE. teacher may play an important role in shaping the teaching-learning atmosphere and thereby affect pupils' cognitions (see figure 4.1). However, the role of the PE. teacher is not to influence pupils' learning directly. Instead, the teacher creates an environment that influences pupils' perceptions and cognitions in such away that important psychological outcomes of RE. may be realized.
The main aim of this chapter is to take advantage of a primarily social¬ cognitive approach in order to explore a variety of psychological outcomes in RE. The focus will be on how pupils' perceptions and cognitions in RE. interact with contextual factors in producing such outcomes. By reading this chapter of the textbook, you will discover that the content on several occasions connects to topics covered in more detail in other chapters. This makes sense given that this chapter is supposed to provide an introduction to several psychological outcomes of P.E, some of which are explored more specifically elsewhere in this textbook (see the chapters by Sarrazin. & Famose; Papaioannou & Goudas-Lintunen; Van Rossum, Musch & Vermeer; Marcoen; Telama; and Lafont & Winnykamen). Further more, some overlap seems inevitable. By nature, psychological issues are associated and should not be viewed in isolation. The rationale behind the psychological outcomes considered in this chapter will be presented next.

Psychological Outcomes of Physical Education

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Some readers will immediately associate a section devoted to psychological outcomes of P.E. with the effects of RE- (and sport) on pupils’ personality. They will think that this section is about the rather enduring dispositions, traits, or characteristics of the personality structure.
This expectation should not be surprising. Almost all European countries have experienced a period in which the position of P.E. in the school curriculum was justified by pointing out the assumed positive effects of this subject matter on personality. Individuals proposed that PE. and sport would have favorable influences on character development, specifically on dispositions such as perseverance, stamina, and courage. Sometimes the character forming element was even specified according to the sport. For instance, judo would be considered specifically valuable in the learning of self-control, boxing in increasing one's resilience, and jumping from a climbing ladder for promoting courage.
with respect to the effects of RE. on cognitive functioning, a variety of commonsense conceptions were used to legitimize the position-of P.E. in the school. For instance, P.E. would be valuable for supposedly enhancing pupils' three-dimensional thinking, for understanding the meaning of prepositions like 'in front of', 'opposite to', 'behind', and so forth.
However, in the majority of European countries, these claims are no longer used to justify physical education. These assumed positive effects of P .E. on personality have not been supported by research findings (Bakker, Whiting, & Van der Brug,1990; Eysenk, Nias, & Cox,19S2). The same holds . for the negative effects(e.g., aggression, selfishness, and jealousy) sometimes attributed to P.E. and sport. In short, P.E. automatically produces neither positive nor negative outcomes- It apparently does not produce effects on enduring personality dispositions or on basic cognitive functions.
This section will first focus on the fact that any effect of P .E. is the result of good planning and of reflective teaching and learning (dynamic interaction between teachers and pupils). The second focus will be the effects of P.E. on a number of psychological variables intrinsically related to P.E. These variables include attitude, enjoyment, motivation, beliefs about physical ability and competence, self-esteem, concentration and attention, and so forth.
In chapter 4, Yngvar Ommundsen from Norway and Michael Bar-Eli from Israel consider outcomes as motivation, achievement goals, affects, self-perceptions, prosocial behaviour, and fair play. These outcomes are intimately related to P.E. itself. They are important both as P .E. curriculum goals with their own merit and as prerequisites for the realization of other curriculum goals. For example, a long lasting interest ia sports and P.E. is likely to develop if pupils experience positive effects in their P.E. lessons. Ommundsen and Bar-Eli discus's theory and research findings pertinent to the role of physical education with respect to promoting these outcomes. They emphasize that the interaction between pupil characteristics and the way P.E. lessons are organized and presented are decisive in producing such outcomes. Creating a task-oriented climate (see also section I of this textbook) appears to be the most productive way to increase intrinsic motivation and positive attitudes and to develop controllable and functional beliefs about the causes of success in I'.E. In addition, Ommundsen and bar-Eli discuss the social-moral outcomes of PE. and the role of P.E. in relation to enhancing self-esteem.
The latter issue is discussed in more detail in chapter 5 of this section by Tara Lintunen, from Finland. She begins her chapter by explaining the relationships between global self-esteem and the sub aspects that are fundamental to P.E. Next, she discusses the development of self-perceptions during childhood and adolescence. The author explains several important aspects of self-perceptions such as their stability and sex differences in specific facets. Finally, Lintunen provides the reader with opportunities for promoting self-perceptions al school, particularly in P.E.
In chapter 6, Yannis Zervas from Greece and Nataila Stambulova from Russia discuss the effects of physical activity on cognitive functioning. The authors consider the acute effects of exercise on concentration and attention, problem solving, and reaction time. The general conclusion of research in this area is that exercise does not hamper cognitive functioning so long as the intensity of exercise is at low or moderate level. Some research findings have, on the contrary, indicated facilitative effects of light and moderate exercise. High levels of physical exertion as well as fatigue conditions may have negative effects. In addition, Zervas and Stambulova show that the nature of the effects of acute exercise bouts on mental performance (whether facilitating or debilitating) depends on the level of physical fitness of the exercisers. A high level of physical fitness is associated with superior levels of mental performance during and after exercise.
Zervas and Stambulova's chapter underscores once again the general message of this section. Positive or negative psychological outcomes at e not produced automatically but depend on the way PE. lessons are planned and organized